Saxuma/Verb Conjugation
This page details the various suffixing conjugations of Saxuma verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see Saxuma#Morphology.
Introduction
There are twelve verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.
- The regular conjugation includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
- There are four classes that are variations of the weak conjugation:
- The -SA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s- or -x-.
- The -FA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
- The -RA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -r-.
- The -LA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
- The -N conjugation includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
- The -S conjugation includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.
- The -T conjugation includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
- The -R conjugation includes all verbs ending in -r.
- The -H conjugation includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
- The -W conjugation includes all verbs ending in -aw.
- The -Y conjugation includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.
In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.
The Negative, -NA
-NA, the negative ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
- Sigu palas.
- The rabbit runs.
- Signa palas.
- The rabbit does not run.
How to conjugate -NA
Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
- lesó → lesoná
- enjí → enjiná
- sigú → signá
-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
- myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
- exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]
-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.
- safá → sawná
- ralí → rawná
-RA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel, change the remaining -r to -x and append -ná.
- kurú → kuxná
-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
- ekán → ekanná
- rum → rumná
- sarás → sarasná
- oxâ → oxāná
- aw → awná
- way → wayná
-R conjugation verbs replace the final -r with -x and append -ná.
- elér → elexná
-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
- enák → enawná
- hē → hyoná
See the summary in the table below:
| Class | Example Stem | Negative -NA | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular | Strong | lesó | lesoná |
| Weak | sigú | signá | |
| -SA | exí | exná | |
| -FA | safá | sawná | |
| -RA | kurú | kuxná | |
| -LA | ralí | rawná | |
| -N | ekán | ekanná | |
| -S | sarás | sarasná | |
| -R | elér | elexná | |
| -T | enák | enawná | |
| -H | oxâ | oxāná | |
| -W | law | lawná | |
| -Y | way | wayná | |
The Causative, -BI
-BI, the causative ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.
- In sigbi palas.
- He makes the rabbit run.
How to conjugate -BI
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
- enák → enacú
- hē → hecú
See the table below for a summary.
| Class | Example Stem | Causative -BI | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular | Strong | lesó | lesobí |
| Weak | sigú | sigbí | |
| -SA | exí | exbí | |
| -FA | safá | sawbí | |
| -RA | kurú | kuxbí | |
| -LA | ralí | rawbí | |
| -N | ekán | ekanbí | |
| -S | sarás | sarasbí | |
| -R | gir | gixbí | |
| -T | enák | enacú | |
| -H | oxâ | oxābí | |
| -W | law | lawbí | |
| -Y | way | waybí | |
The Inchoative, -WAY
-WAY, the inchoative ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.
- Sigway palas.
- The rabbit is starting to run. or The rabbit is about to run.
How to Conjugate -WAY
For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.
- law → lawáy
- ralí → rawáy
See the table below.
| Class | Example Stem | Inchoative -WAY | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular | Strong | lesó | lesowáy |
| Weak | sigú | sigwáy | |
| -SA | exí | exfáy | |
| -FA | safá | sawfáy | |
| -RA | kurú | kuxfáy | |
| -LA | ralí | rawáy | |
| -N | ekán | ekanwáy | |
| -S | sarás | sarasfáy | |
| -R | elér | elexfáy | |
| -T | enák | enawfáy | |
| -H | oxâ | oxāfáy | |
| -W | law | lawáy | |
| -Y | way | waywáy | |
The Prospective, -KUN
-KUN, the prospective ending, indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.
- Garu le ba be ohin.
- She arrives at his house.'
- Gaxkun le ba be ohin.
- She is/was about to arrive at his house.
How to conjugate -KUN
Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.
- enjí → enjikún
- ten → tenkún
- aw → awkún
- way → waykún
Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
- Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
- damá → damkún
- riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]
-SA and -RA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.
- kosá → koqún
- exí → eqún
- kurú → kuqún
-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append kún.
- ralí → rawkún
-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.
- safá → sawqún
-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.
- herúx → heruqún
- sarás → saraqún
- gir → giqún
- enák → enaqún
-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.
- oxâ → oxaqún
- pē → peqún
- xō → xoqún
See the summary table below:
| Class | Example Stem | Prospective -KUN | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular | Strong | lesó | lesokún |
| Weak | sigú | sigkún | |
| -SA | exí | eqún | |
| -FA | safá | sawqún | |
| -RA | kurú | kuqún | |
| -LA | ralí | rawkun | |
| -N | ekán | ekankún | |
| -S | sarás | saraqún | |
| -R | elér | eleqún | |
| -T | enák | enaqún | |
| -H | oxâ | oxaqún | |
| -W | law | lawkún | |
| -Y | way | waykún | |
The Perfective, -W
-W, the perfective ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
- Sila kajip.
- The guest leaves.
- Silaw kajip.
- The guest has left.
How to conjugate -W
All regular, -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
- lesó → lesô
- sigú → sigû
- exí → exyú
- safá → safáw
- kurú → kurû
- ralí → ralyú
-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
- ekán → ekánla
- rum → rúmla
-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
- elér → elyósa
- yos → yôsa
- bulíx → bulyúsa
-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
- enák → enatáw
- hē → hetáw
-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
- oxâ → oxáwsa
- orî → oryúsa
- xō → xôsa
-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
- aw → ála
- ryuláw → ryulála
-Y verbs append -ú.
- way → wayú
See the summary table below.
| Class | Example Stem | Perfective -W | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular | Strong | lesó | lesô |
| Weak | sigú | sigû | |
| -SA | exí | exyú | |
| -FA | safá | safáw | |
| -RA | kurú | kûsa | |
| -LA | ralí | ralyú | |
| -N | ekán | ekánla | |
| -S | sarás | saráwsa | |
| -R | elér | elyósa | |
| -T | enák | enatáw | |
| -H | oxâ | oxáwsa | |
| -W | law | lála | |
| -Y | way | wayú | |
The Habitual, -AX
-AX, the habitual ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
- Me lesó lyu don.
- I read many books.
- Me lesowáx lyu don.
- I have been reading many books.
- Mujú aska.
- The fish swims.
- Mujwáx aska.
- Fish swim [in general].
How to conjugate -AX
Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
- Verbs with final -a append -x.
- Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
- Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
- Verbs with final consonants append -áx.
This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.
- enjí → enjiyáx
- lesó → lesowáx
- lewá → lewáx
- ekán → ekanáx
- way → wayáx
- gir → giráx
- saras → sarasáx
Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
- ralí → ralyáx
- kurú → kurwáx
- wakí → wakyáx
-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
- enák → enatáx
- hē → hetáx
-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
- oxâ → oxaháx
- mosē → moseháx
-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
- maw → maláx
See the summary table below.
| Class | Example Stem | Habitual -AX | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular | Strong | lesó | lesowáx |
| Weak | sigú | sigwáx | |
| -SA | exí | exyáx | |
| -FA | safá | safáx | |
| -RA | kurú | kurwáx | |
| -LA | ralí | ralyáx | |
| -N | ekán | ekanáx | |
| -S | sarás | sarasáx | |
| -R | elér | eleráx | |
| -T | enák | enatáx | |
| -H | oxâ | oxaháx | |
| -W | law | laláx | |
| -Y | way | wayáx | |
The Attributive, -LA
-LA, the attributive ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.
- Mujná aska.
- The fish does not swim.
- Aska mujnalá sa taláw.
- "The fish that is not swimming is dead.
More advanced usage of -LA is explained at Saxuma/Syntax#The attributive.
How to conjugate -LA
Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.
- leso → lesolá
- sigú → siglá
- ekán → ekanlá
- way → waylá
-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.
- ralí → ralá
- silá → silá
- gelú → gelá
-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.
- ryuláw → ryulalá
- maw → malá
-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.
- enák → enaxá
- hē → hexá
-SA, -FA, and -RA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
- exí → yosá
- safá → sawsá
- kurú → kūsá
-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
- oxâ → oxawsá
- orî → oryusá
See the summary table below.
| Class | Example Stem | Attributive -LA | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular | Strong | lesó | lesolá |
| Weak | sigú | siglá | |
| -SA | exí | yosá | |
| -FA | safá | sawsá | |
| -RA | kurú | kūsá | |
| -LA | ralí | ralá | |
| -N | ekán | ekanlá | |
| -S | sarás | sarawsá | |
| -R | elér | elyosá | |
| -T | enák | enaxá | |
| -H | oxâ | oxawsá | |
| -W | law | lalá | |
| -Y | way | waylá | |