Saxuma/Verb Conjugation

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This page details the various suffixing conjugations of Saxuma verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see Saxuma#Morphology.

Introduction

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

  • The regular conjugation includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
  • The -SA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
  • The -FA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
  • The -JA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
  • The -LA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
  • The -N conjugation includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
  • The -S conjugation includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
  • The -T conjugation includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
  • The -H conjugation includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
  • The -W conjugation includes all verbs ending in -aw.
  • The -Y conjugation includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.

The Negative, -NA

-NA, the negative ending, negates the verb it attaches to.

Sigu palas.
The rabbit runs.
Signa palas.
The rabbit does not run.

How to conjugate -NA

Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.

lesó → lesoná
enjí → enjiná
sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].

myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.

safá → sawná
ralí → rawná

-JA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.

mujú → moyná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.

ekán → ekanná
rum → rumná
sarás → sarasná
oxâ → oxāná
aw → awná
way → wayná
elér → elerná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.

enák → enawná
hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:

Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Negative -NA
Regular Strong lesó lesoná
Weak sigú signá
-SA exí exná
-FA safá sawná
-JA mujú moyná
-LA ralí rawná
-N ekán ekanná
-S sarás sarasná
-T enák enawná
-H oxâ oxāná
-W law lawná
-Y way wayná

The Causative, -BI

-BI, the causative ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.

In sigbi palas.
He makes the rabbit run.

How to conjugate -BI

-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú

enák → enacú
hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Causative -BI
Regular Strong lesó lesobí
Weak sigú sigbí
-SA exí exbí
-FA safá sawbí
-JA mujú moybí
-LA ralí rawbí
-N ekán ekanbí
-S sarás sarasbí
-T enák enacú
-H oxâ oxābí
-W law lawbí
-Y way waybí

The Inchoative, -WAY

-WAY, the inchoative ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.

Sigway palas.
The rabbit is starting to run. or The rabbit is about to run.

How to Conjugate -WAY

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.

law → lawáy
ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Inchoative -WAY
Regular Strong lesó lesowáy
Weak sigú sigwáy
-SA exí exfáy
-FA safá sawfáy
-JA mujú mujwáy
-LA ralí rawáy
-N ekán ekanwáy
-S sarás sarasfáy
-T enák enawfáy
-H oxâ oxāfáy
-W law lawáy
-Y way waywáy

The Prospective, -KUN

-KUN, the prospective ending, indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.

Garu le ba be ohin.
She arrives at his house.'
Gaxkun le ba be ohin.
She is/was about to arrive at his house.

How to conjugate -KUN

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.

enjí → enjikún
ten → tenkún
aw → awkún
way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.

  • Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
damá → damkún
riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.

kosá → koqún
exí → eqún
kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.

ralí → rawkún

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.

mujú → moykún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.

safá → sawqún

-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.

herúx → heruqún
sarás → saraqún
gir → giqún
enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.

oxâ → oxaqún
pē → peqún
xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
Class Example Stem Prospective -KUN
Regular Strong lesó lesokún
Weak sigú sigkún
-SA exí eqún
-FA safá sawqún
-JA mujú moykún
-LA ralí rawkun
-N ekán ekankún
-S sarás saraqún
-T enák enaqún
-H oxâ oxaqún
-W law lawkún
-Y way waykún

The Perfective, -W

-W, the perfective ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.

Sila kajip.
The guest leaves.
Silaw kajip.
The guest has left.

How to conjugate -W

All regular, -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.

lesó → lesô
sigú → sigû
exí → exyú
safá → safáw
kurú → kurû
ralí → ralyú
mujú → mujû

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.

ekán → ekánla
rum → rúmla

-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.

elér → elyósa
yos → yôsa
bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.

enák → enatáw
hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.

oxâ → oxáwsa
orî → oryúsa
xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.

aw → ála
ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.

way → wayú

See the summary table below.

Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Perfective -W
Regular Strong lesó lesô
Weak sigú sigû
-SA exí exyú
-FA safá safáw
-JA mujú mujû
-LA ralí ralyú
-N ekán ekánla
-S sarás saráwsa
-T enák enatáw
-H oxâ oxáwsa
-W law lála
-Y way wayú

The Habitual, -AX

-AX, the habitual ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.

Me lesó lyu don.
I read many books.
Me lesowáx lyu don.
I have been reading many books.
Mujú aska.
The fish swims.
Mujwáx aska.
Fish swim [in general].

How to conjugate -AX

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:

  • Verbs with final -a append -x.
  • Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
  • Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
  • Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.

enjí → enjiyáx
lesó → lesowáx
lewá → lewáx
ekán → ekanáx
way → wayáx
gir → giráx
saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.

ralí → ralyáx
kurú → kurwáx
wakí → wakyáx
mujú → mujwáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.

enák → enatáx
hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.

oxâ → oxaháx
mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.

maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Habitual -AX
Regular Strong lesó lesowáx
Weak sigú sigwáx
-SA exí exyáx
-FA safá safáx
-JA mujú mujwáx
-LA ralí ralyáx
-N ekán ekanáx
-S sarás sarasáx
-T enák enatáx
-H oxâ oxaháx
-W law laláx
-Y way wayáx

The Attributive, -LA

-LA, the attributive ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.

Mujná aska.
The fish does not swim.
Aska mujna sa taláw.
"The fish that is not swimming is dead.

More advanced usage of -LA is explained at Saxuma/Syntax#The attributive.

How to conjugate -LA

Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.

leso → lesolá
sigú → siglá
ekán → ekanlá
way → waylá

-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.

ralí → ralá
silá → silá
gelú → gelá

-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.

ryuláw → ryulalá
maw → malá

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.

enák → enaxá
hē → hexá

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, change apply y-ablaut, and append -lá.

mujú → moylá

-SA and -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.

exí → yosá
safá → sawsá
kurú → kūsá

-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.

oxâ → oxawsá
orî → oryusá

See the summary table below.

Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Attributive -LA
Regular Strong lesó lesolá
Weak sigú siglá
-SA exí yosá
-ZA mujú moylá
-FA safá sawsá
-LA ralí ralá
-N ekán ekanlá
-S sarás sarawsá
-T enák enaxá
-H oxâ oxawsá
-W law lalá
-Y way waylá

Summary

Verb conjugations by class and inflection
Class Example Stem Negative -NA Causative -BI Inchoative -WAY Prospective -KUN Perfective -W Habitual -AX Attributive -LA
Regular Strong lesó lesoná lesobí lesowáy lesokún lesô lesowáx lesolá
Weak sigú signá sigbí sigwáy sigkún sigû sigwáx siglá
-SA exí exná exbí exfáy eqún exyú exyáx yosá
-FA safá sawná sawbí sawfáy sawqún safáw safáx sawsá
-JA mujú moyná moybí mujwáy moykún mujû mujwáx moylá
-LA ralí rawná rawbí rawáy rawkún ralyú ralyáx ralá
-N ekán ekanná ekanbí ekanwáy ekankún ekánla ekanáx ekanlá
-S sarás sarasná sarasbí sarasfáy saraqún saráwsa sarasáx sarawsá
-T enák enawná enacú enasfáy enaqún enatáw enatáx enaxá
-H oxâ oxāná oxābí oxafáy oxaqún oxáwsa oxaháx oxawsá
-W law lawná lawbí lawáy lawkún lála laláx lalá
-Y way wayná waybí waywáy waykún wayú wayáx waylá

Combining Conjugations