Plevian

Revision as of 04:03, 29 January 2023 by Shariifka (talk | contribs) (→‎Class 5)

Plevian (native: pleviano, sa dengua pleviana) is an Italic language descended from Old Latin.

Plevian
sa dengua pleviana
Pronunciation[sa ˈdeŋɡʷa pleˈvʲana; sa ˈðeŋɡʷa ɸleˈvʲana]
Created byShariifka
Early forms
Old Latin
  • Old Plevian

Introduction

Phonology

Orthography

Plevian orthography
Grapheme Environment IPA Remarks
a everywhere a
b everywhere b May be pronounced [β] in leniting environments.
c before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩ May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally k May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
ch before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩ k
ci before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩ May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
otherwise tʃi
cj before a consonant; word-finally May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
d everywhere d May be pronounced [ð] in leniting environments.
dz everywhere dz May be pronounced [z] in leniting environments.
e everywhere e
f everywhere f
g before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩ May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally ɡ May be pronounced [ɣ] in leniting environments.
gh before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩ ɡ
gi before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩ May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
otherwise dʒi
gj before a consonant; word-finally May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
gu before vowels ɡw May be pronounced [w] in leniting environments.
otherwise ɡu
h all χ
i before vowels j
otherwise i
j everywhere j
k in loanwords k May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
l everywhere l
li before vowels ʎ
otherwise li
m everywhere m
n everywhere n
ni before vowels ɲ
otherwise ni
o everywhere o
p everywhere p May be pronounced [ɸ] in leniting environments.
qu everywhere kw May be pronounced [xʷ] in leniting environments. Doubled as ⟨cqu⟩.
r everywhere r
s between vowels; before voiced consonants z The [s~z] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
otherwise s The combination /stʃ/ is often pronounced [ʃː].
t everywhere t May be pronounced [θ] in leniting environments.
u before vowels w After a consonant, usually pronounced as labialization [ʷ].
otherwise u
v everywhere v
w in loanwords ɡw May be pronounced [w] between vowels.
x before vowels; before voiced consonants ʒ The [ʃ~ʒ] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
otherwise ʃ
xi between vowels ʒ
before vowels otherwise ʃ
otherwise ʃi~ʒi See above for allophony.
y in loanwords before vowels j
in loanwords otherwise i
z everywhere ts May be pronounced [s] in leniting environments.

Consonants

Plevian consonant phonemes
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar/
Palatal
Velar/
Guttural
Nasal m n (ɲ)1 (ŋ)2
Stop voiceless p t k
voiced b d ɡ
Affricate voiceless ts
voiced dz
Fricative voiceless f s ʃ χ
voiced v (z)3 (ʒ)3
Approximant j w
Lateral l (ʎ)1
Trill r

Notes:

1 [ɲ] and [ʎ] are surface realizations of underlying /nj/ and /lj/ respectively.

2 [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.

3 [z] and [ʒ] are allophones of /s/ and /ʃ/ respectively between vowels and before voiced sounds.

4 Most consonants can be labialized and/or palatalized. However, these are considered to be sequences of consonant + /w/ or /j/ respectively.

Vowels

Plevian monophthong vowels
Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a

In addition to the monopthongs above, the following diphthongs are possible:

  • Rising: ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, uo, ui
  • Falling: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou

The most common diphthongs are ia, ua, ue, and io. Additionally, ui is common after /k/ and /ɡ/. The remaining diphthongs are rare.

Note that the glide in falling diphthings is usually realized as palatalization (in the case of -i-) or labialization (in the case of -u-).

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Epenthetic consonants

When a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning in a vowel, an epenthetic consonant is usually inserted.

In the case of nouns and adjectives, the consonant used is -n.

Third person plural verbs, while not ending in a vowel, take an epenthetic -t before vowel-initial words.

Other words can have varying epenthetic consonants (such as -n, -d, -b, -g, -t, etc.) depending on their etymology.

Examples:

  • a "to" + America > ad America
  • da "away from, out lf" + America > dab America
  • femna "woman" + alta "tall" > femnan alta
  • ama "(s)he loves" + arbrex "trees" > amad arbrex
  • aman "they love" + arbrex > amant arbrex

Counter-examples:

  • de "of, from" + America > de America
  • amo "I love" + arbrex "trees" > amo arbrex

Syntactic gemination

Certain pronouns and particles cause the first consonant of a following consonant-initial word to geminate.

In most cases, these are the same words that add an epenthetic -d, -g, or -b when the following word begins in a vowel.

Examples:

  • a "to" + Canada > a cCanada
  • da "away from, out of" + Canada > da cCanada
  • ama "(s)he loves" + carne "meat" > ama ccarne

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns may be masculine or feminine.

Nouns are pluralized in -x. After a consonant, this ending becomes -ex.

Nouns ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when followed by a word beginning in a vowel.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with the noun they govern in gender and number.

Adjectives whose masculine forms end in -o are feminized in -a. Otherwise, the masculine and feminine forms are identical. Adjectives ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when immediately followed by a vowel.

Like nouns, adjectives are pluralized in -(e)x.

Articles

Articles precede the noun they govern and agree with it in gender and number.

The definite article is so, declined as below:

Singular Plural
Masculine so(n) sox
Feminine sa(n) sax

Notes:

1 -n is added before words beginning in vowels.

The indefinite article is gueno, declined as below:

Singular Plural
Masculine guen(o)1 guenox
Feminine guen(a)2 guenax

Notes:

1 -o is added before words beginning in consonant clusters.

2 -a is dropped before words beginning in vowels.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Person/ Number Subject Object Clitic object Possessive
Direct Indirect Weak Strong
1S mu me me(n) me(d/G) mo(n) mexxo
2S tu te te(n) te(d/G) to(n) texxo
3SM gio gio gio(n) gio(d/G) gio(n) gioxxo
3SF gia gia gia(n) gia(d/G) gia(n) giaxxo
3R su se se(n) se(d/G) so(n) siaxxo
1P nox nox nox nox nox nuastro
2P gox gox gox gox gox guastro
3PM giox giox giox giox giox gioro
3PF giax giax giax giax giax giaro

Numerals

Essanian numerals
Cardinal Ordinal Fractional
0 zero(n) zerosmo(n), -a(n)
1 gueno(n), guena(n) primo(n), -a(n)
2 dúox, dúax secondo(n), -(n) semesse(n)
3 trix tiarzo(n), -a(n) triante(n)
4 quáttor quarto(n), -a(n) quadrante(n)
5 quenche quempto(n), -a(n) quemptante(n)
6 siapx siasto(n), -a(n) sestante(n)
7 siapte(n) siápmo(n), -a(n) sepmante(n)
8 guapto optago(n), -a(n) optagante(n)
9 nuaghe(n) nono(n), -a(n) nonante(n)
10 diace(n) diacmo(n), -a(n) decmante(n)
11 guence(n) guendecmo(n), -a(n) guendecmante(n)
12 duocce(n) duodiacmo(n), -a(n) duodecmante(n)
13 trecce(n) trediacmo(n), -a(n) tredecmante(n)
14 quattorce(n) quattordiacmo(n), -a(n) quattordecmante(n)
15 quince(n) quindiacmo(n), -a(n) quindecmante(n)
16 secce(n) sediacmo(n), -a(n) sedecmante(n)
17 septence(n) septendiacmo(n), -a(n) septendecmante(n)
18 optocce(n) optodiacmo(n), -a(n) optodecmante(n)
19 nogence(n) nogendiacmo(n), -a(n) nogendecmante(n)
20 guigenti guigesmo(m), -a(m) guigesmante(n)
21 guigenti-gueno(n), -a(n) guigenti-primo(n), -a(n) guigenti-guenante(n)
22 guigenti-dúox, -dúax guigenti-secondo(n), -a(n) guigenti-duante(n)
23 guigenti-trix guigenti-tiarzo(n), -a(n) guigenti-triante(n)
30 trigenta trigesmo(n), -a(n) trigesmante(n)
40 quadragenta quadragesmo(n), -a(n) quadragesmante(n)
50 quencagenta quencagesmo(n), -a(n) quencagesmante(n)
60 sepsagenta sepsagesmo(n), -a(n) sepsagesmante(n)
70 sepmagenta sepmagesmo(n), -a(n) sepmagesmante(n)
80 optagenta optagesmo(n), -a(n) optagesmante(n)
90 nonagenta nonagesmo(n), -a(n) nonagesmante(n)
100 cianto(n) centesmo(n), -a(n) centesmante(n)
200 duox-ciantox duox-centesmo(n), -a(n) duox-centesmante(n)
1000 milli millesmo(n), -a(n) millesmante(n)
2000 duox-millia duox-millesmo(n), -a(n) duox-millesmante(n)
10⁶ millione(n) milllionesmo(n), -a(n) millionesmante(n)
10⁹ milliardo(n) milliardesmo(n), -a(n) milliardesmante(n)
10¹² billione(n) billlionesmo(n), -a(n) billionesmante(n)

Verbs

Verb classes

There are five verb classes:

  1. -are verbs (class 1)
  2. -ere verbs (class 2)
  3. Non-palatalized -re verbs (class 3)
  4. Palatalized -re verbs (class 4)
  5. -ire verbs (class 5)

Present indicative

Class 1 2 3 4 5
1S -o -io -o -io -io
2S -ax -ex -ex -ix -ix
3S -a(d/G) -e(d/G) -e(d/G) -i(d/G) -i(d/G)
1P -amox -emox -mox -mox -imox
2P -atex -etex -tex -tex -itex
3P -an(t) -en(t) -on(t) -ion(t) -ion(t)

Notes:

  1. Before a glide -i-, labialized consonants lose their labialization. This applies in the 1S for Class 2, 4, and 5 verbs and the 3P for Class 4 & 5 verbs. Additionally, Class 4 & 5 verbs whose stems end in coronal consonants undergo stem changes in the 1S and 3P forms:
Expected Changed to
ti z
di dz
si x
zi ci
  1. Verbs whose stem end in velar stops (-c- or -g-) maintain their spelling throughout the present indicative regardless of whether that would result in a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. On the other hand, verbs whose stem ends in -ch- or -gh- drop the -h- when they are not followed by front vowels.

Present subjunctive

The present subjunctive is formed by removing -o from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class 1 Others
1S -e(n) -a(n)
2S -ex -ax
3S -e(d/G) -a(d/G)
1P -emox -amox
2P -etex -atex
3P -en(t) -an(t)

Class 1 verbs whose stems end in a velar stop maintain their lack of palatalization in the present subjunctive.

Imperfect indicative

The imperfect stem is formed by removing -o or (only for Class 2 verbs) -io from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class 1 Others
1S -ava(n) -eva(n)
2S -avax -evax
3S -ava(d/G) -eva(d/G)
1P -avamox -evamox
2P -avatex -evatex
3P -avan(t) -evan(t)

Imperfect subjunctive

The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the verb's infinitive:

Class All
1S -(n)
2S -x
3S -(d/G)
1P -mox
2P -tex
3P -n(t)

Future

The future is formed by adding the following endings to the imperfect stem:

Class 1 Others
1S -avo -evo
2S -avex -evex
3S -ave(d/G) -eve(d/G)
1P -ammox -emmox
2P -aptex -eptex
3P -avon(t) -evon(t)

Future perfect

The future perfect is formed by adding the following endings to the infinitive stem with -re removed:

Class 1, 2, 5 3, 4
1S -sso -so
2S -ssex -sex
3S -sse(d/G) -se(d/G)
1P -ssemox -semox
2P -ssetex -setex
3P -ssen(t) -sen(t)

Perfect indicative

The perfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -e
2S -este
3S -e(d/G)
1P -mox
2P -estex
3P -ron(t)

The perfect stem is derived from the present stem in different ways depending on the verb.

  • Regular Class 1 & 5 verbs form it by removing -re from the infinitive and adding -g(h)- (always hard).
  • Regular Class 2, 3, and 4 verbs form it by adding -u- to the present stem.
  • There are many irregular verbs, especially in classes 2-4 (and sometimes 5).

Perfect subjunctive

The perfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -re(n)
2S -rex
3S -re(d/G)
1P -remox
2P -retex
3P -ren(t)

Pluperfect indicative

The pluperfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -ra(n)
2S -rax
3S -ra(d/G)
1P -ramox
2P -ratex
3P -ran(t)

Pluperfect subjunctive

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -esse(n)
2S -essex
3S -esse(d/G)
1P -essemox
2P -essetex
3P -essen(t)

Imperative

The imperative is formed by removing -x from the corresponding second person present indicative. This applies both in the singular and plural.

Derived adjectives and nouns

The following derived adjectives and nouns exist:

Participle Formation Remarks
Present participle Formed by removing -va(n) from the 1S imperfect indicative and adding -nte(n).
Past participle Regularly formed by removing -re from the infinitive and adding -to(n) (m.)/-ta(n) (f.). Many verbs have an irregular past participle.
Future participle Formed by removing the final vowel (-o/a) of the past participle and adding -uro(n) (m.)/-ura(n) (f.). Means "about to X".
Gerundive Formed by removing -n(t) from the 3P present indicative and adding -ndo(n) (m.)/-nda(n) (f.) Roughly equivalent to the suffix "-able" in English. Depending on the verb, it may have active or passive meaning.
Agent noun Formed by removing the final vowel (-o/a) of the past participle and adding -ore(n) (m.)/-(t)rice(n) (f.). -(t)- is added in the feminine when it is not already present at the end of the past participle stem.

Stem-changing verbs

In stem-changing verbs, the stem changes depending on whether it is stressed or unstressed.

In most cases, this involves a vowel change. The main patterns are:

  • Unstressed -e- > Stressed -ia-
  • Stressed -o- > Stressed -ua-

Due to historical sound changes, there may also be consonant changes. Some examples include:

  • Dropping of g- in the unstressed stem.
  • Etc.

Principal parts

For the vast majority of verbs, whether regular or irregular, the full conjugation can be derived from the following four principal parts:

  • Infinitive
  • 1S present indicative
  • 1S perfect indicative
  • Singular masculine past participle

Irregular verbs

esse "to be"
Infinitive esse Present participle sente(n)
Past participle futo(n)/futa(n) Future participle futuro(n)/futura(n)
Gerundive sondo(n)/sonda(n) Agent noun futore(n)/futrice(n)
Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect Future Future perfect Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect
1S so(n) era(n) fue essa(n) ero fuaro fua(n) esse(n) fure(n) fuesse(n)
2S ex erax fueste essax erex fuarex fuax essex furex fuessex ex
3S e(t) era(d/G) fue(d/G) essa(d/G) ere(d/G) fuare(d/G) fua(d/G) esse(d/G) fure(d/G) fuesse(d/G)
1P somox eramox fumox essamox ermox fuarmox fuamox essemox furemox fuessemox
2P estex eratex fuestex essatex ertex fuartex fuatex essetex furetex fuessetex este
3P son(t) eran(t) furon(t) essan(t) eron(t) fuaren(t) fuan(t) essen(t) furen(t) fuessen(t)
Class 1
  • dare, do, diade, dato "to give"
  • stare, sto, stiate, stato "to stand"
Class 2
  • flere, flio, fleghe, fleto "to cry"
  • ridere, ridio, rise, riso "to laugh"
  • guedere, guedio, guese, gueso "to see"
  • Etc.
Class 3
  • agre, ago, ege, apto "to act, behave"
  • decre, deco, depse, depto "to say"
  • fegre, fego, fepse, fepto "to place"
  • Etc
Class 4
  • facre, facio, fece, fapto "to do, make"
  • capre, capio, cepe, capto "to take, grasp"
  • Etc
Class 5
  • parire, pario, pepre, parto "to make, produce"
  • Etc

Compound tenses

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Guabrix xiamnex nascon luebrox ed equox en degretaten e ggiorex. Son dotatox de razonen e cconscienza, e ddevent agre enter se seco ffratrex.

IPA (broad): /ˈɡwabriʃ ˈʃamneʃ ˈnaskon ˈlwebroʃ ed ekwoʃ en ˌdeɡreˈtaten e ˈdʒːoreʃ ‖ son doˈtatoʃ de raˈtsonen e kːonˈstʃentsa | e ˈdːevent ˈaɡre ˈenter se ˈseko ˈfːratreʃ/

IPA (narrow, with lenition): [ˈɡʷaː.βriʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈnas.kon ˈlʷeː.βro.ʃ‿eˈð‿eː.xʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɣɾe.ˈθaː.θe.n‿e‿ʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈθaː.θoʒ de ra.ˈsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːen.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɣɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈzeː.xo‿f.ˈfɾaː.θɾeʃ]

IPA (narrow, without lenition): [ˈɡʷaː.briʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈnas.kon ˈlʷeː.bro.ʃ‿eˈd‿eː.kʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɡɾe.ˈtaː.te.n‿e‿dʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈtaː.toʒ de ra.ˈtsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːen.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɡɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈseː.ko‿f.ˈfɾaː.tɾeʃ]

all-PL people they_are_born free-PL and equal-PL in dignitt and rights. they_are endowed of reason and conscience, and they_must act among themselves like brothers.

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