Aryan

Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh₀, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language equivalent to the reconstruction of Indo-European Languages (Proto-Indo-European).

Aryan
*airáh₀
Pronunciation	[ai̯ˈrəʔ]
Created by	Veno
Date	8000-6000 BP
Setting	Caucasus Mountains
Native speakers	- (2024)
Language family	Pangaean Code Aryan
Early form	Transitional Dialect
Writing system	Latin
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Introduction

Phonology

	Sanskrit	Avestan	Lithuanian
*p	x x
*t			x x
*k		x x
*ḱ		x x

thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic		Germanic
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		Greek		Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		normal	C+[j] ^{[C 1]}	Latin	normal	-C- ^{[C 2]} ^{[C 1]}	Gothic	English
*p	p; ph [pʰ] ^{[C 3]}	p; f ^{[C 4]}	p			h; w ^{[C 5]}	p, pp	p		pt	p	∅		f; b [β] ^{[C 6]}	f; v, f^{[C 2]}
*t	t; th [t̪ʰ] ^{[C 3]}	t; θ^{[C 4]}	t			tʿ [tʰ]	t, tt; z [ts] ^{[C 7]}	t; c [c] ^{[C 7]}	t	s; tt/ss^{[C 5]}	t	t	th [θ]	þ [θ]; d [ð]; ^{[C 6]}	th; d; ^{[C 6]}
*ḱ	ś [ɕ]	s		š [ʃ]	th [θ]; k^{[C 8]}	s	k, kk	k; ś [ɕ]^{[C 8]}	k		c [k]	c [k]	ch [x]	h; g [ɣ] ^{[C 6]}	h; ∅;^{[C 2]} y ^{[C 6]}
*k	k; c [t͡ɕ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ] ^{[C 3]}	k; c [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} x^{[C 4]}	k; č [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} c [ts]^{[C 9]}	k	k; q [c]^{[C 9]}	kʿ [kʰ]	k, kk		k		c [k]			h; g [ɣ] ^{[C 6]}	h; ∅;^{[C 2]} y ^{[C 6]}
*kʷ	k; c [t͡ɕ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ] ^{[C 3]}	k; c [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} x^{[C 4]}	k; č [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} c [ts]^{[C 9]}	k	k; s; ^{[C 7]} q [c]^{[C 9]}	kʿ [kʰ]	ku, kku		p; t; ^{[C 7]} k^{[C 10]}		qu [kʷ]; c [k] ^{[C 11]}			ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w ^{[C 6]}	wh; w ^{[C 6]}
*b	b; bh ^{[C 3]}	b; β ^{[C 12]}	b			p			b	pt	b	b [b]	-[β]-	p
*d	d; dh ^{[C 3]}	d; δ ^{[C 12]}	d		d; dh [ð]^{[C 2]}	t		ts; ś [ɕ] ^{[C 7]}	d	z [zd] > [z]	d	d [d]	-[ð]-	t
*ǵ	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; g^{[C 8]}	c [ts]	k	k; ś [ɕ]^{[C 8]}	g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch^{[C 9]}
*g	g; j [d͡ʑ]; ^{[C 7]} gh; ^{[C 3]} h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g	k	k		g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch^{[C 9]}
*gʷ	g; j [d͡ʑ]; ^{[C 7]} gh; ^{[C 3]} h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g; z; ^{[C 7]} gj [ɟ]^{[C 9]}	k	ku		b; d; ^{[C 7]} g^{[C 10]}		u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] ^{[C 13]}	b [b]	-[β]-	q [kʷ]	qu
*pʰ	bh [bʱ]	b; β ^{[C 12]}	b			b; w^{[C 2]}	p		ph [pʰ]	pt	f;^{[C 14]} b	b [b]	-[β]-	b [b]; b [β];^{[C 2]} f ^{[C 15]}	b; v / f^{[C 16]}
*tʰ	dh [dʱ]	d; δ ^{[C 12]}	d				t	t; c [c] ^{[C 7]}	th [tʰ]	tt/ss	f;^{[C 14]} d; b ^{[C 17]}	d [d]	-[ð]-	d; d [ð];^{[C 2]} þ ^{[C 15]}	d
*ǵʰ	h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; d^{[C 8]}	j [dz]; z^{[C 2]}	k	k; ś [ɕ] ^{[C 7]}	kh [kʰ]		h; h / g^{[C 8]}	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	g; g [ɣ];^{[C 2]} g [x] ^{[C 15]}	g; y / w^{[C 16]}
*gʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 7]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g	g; ǰ [dʒ] ^{[C 7]}	k		kh [kʰ]		h; h / g^{[C 8]}			g; g [ɣ];^{[C 2]} g [x] ^{[C 15]}	g; y / w^{[C 16]}
*gʷʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 7]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g; z; ^{[C 7]} gj [ɟ]^{[C 9]}	g; ǰ [dʒ] ^{[C 7]}	ku		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ]^{[C 10]}		f;^{[C 14]} g / u [w];^{[C 2]} gu [ɡʷ] ^{[C 13]}			g; b;^{[C 14]} w;^{[C 2]} gw ^{[C 13]}	g; b;^{[C 14]} w^{[C 2]}
*s	s	h [h, x]	s		sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];^{[C 18]} h^{[C 2]}	h; ∅^{[C 2]}	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h;^{[C 14]} s;^{[C 19]}^{[C 15]}/ ∅;^{[C 2]} [¯] ^{[C 20]}	i	s; r^{[C 2]}	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z ^{[C 6]}	s; r ^{[C 6]}
*s	ṣ [ʂ]^{[C 21]}	š [ʃ]^{[C 21]}	x [x]^{[C 21]}	š [ʃ]^{[C 21]}	sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];^{[C 18]} h^{[C 2]}	h; ∅^{[C 2]}	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h;^{[C 14]} s;^{[C 19]}^{[C 15]}/ ∅;^{[C 2]} [¯] ^{[C 20]}	i	s; r^{[C 2]}	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z ^{[C 6]}	s; r ^{[C 6]}
*m	m									in	m	m [m]	-[w̃]-	m
*-m ^{[C 15]}	m		˛ [˜]	n		∅	n	n		--	m [˜]	n		∅
*n	n		n; ˛ [˜] ^{[C 15]}	n				n; ñ [ɲ]	n	in	n
*l	r (dial. l)	r	l		l; ll [ɫ]^{[C 2]}	l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ]	l			il	l
*r	r/l^{[C 22]}	r			r [ɾ]; rr [r]^{[C 2]}	r				ir	r
*y	y [j]		j [j]		gj [ɟ]; ∅	∅	y [j]		z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ ^{[C 2]}	?i	i [j]; ∅ ^{[C 2]}	∅		j	y
*w	v [ʋ]	v [w]	v	v [ʋ]	v	g / w	w		w > h / ∅	i	u [w > v]	f	-∅-	w
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English

Notes for table 1:

^ ^a ^b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Between vowels
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before an original h₂.
^ ^a ^b ^c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
^ ^a ^b After a vowel.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Before a sonorant.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
^ ^a ^b ^c Before or after a (PIE) u
^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
^ ^a ^b ^c After n.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the beginning of a word
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the end of a word.
^ ^a ^b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
^ After u, r or before r, l.
^ Before a stressed vowel
^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic	Germanic
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		Greek		Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		normal	C+[j]	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
*sr	sr	r	str	sr	rr [r]	(a)r	š(ša)r ʃʃr		rh	n/a	fr-, -br-	sr	str	str
*tw	tv	θβ	tv	tv	t	kʿ [kʰ]	ttu, ddu		s-, -ss-	n/a	p?	t	þw	thw
*dʰw	dhv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	?	tu, du				f	d	dw	dw
*dw	dv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	(e)rk	tu, du				b	d	tw	tw
*tl			sl	kl, sl					tl		kl	tl
*dl	ll
*dn	nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw	śv	sp	sv	šv	s	sk, š				n/a	qu [kʷ]	cu [kʷ]	Template:Transl [xʷ]	wh
*ǵʰw	hv		zv	žv	z
*ǵw	jv		zv	žv	z								q [kʷ]	qu [kw]
*sw	sv	xuu [xʷ]	sv	sv	v, d^{[CC 1]}	kʿ [kʰ]	normal dev.		h	n/a	su [sw]	s	sw	sw
*sp	sp	sp ^{[CC 2]}	sp		f	sp ^{[CC 2]} / pʿ [pʰ]	normal dev.		sp ^{[CC 2]}	?	sp	f	sp ^{[CC 3]}
*sbʰ		spʰ
*sd	d; ḷ^{[CC 4]} > ḍ, ḍḍ	zd	zd	zd		st					d	-t- [d]	st	st
*sdʰ	dh; ḷh^{[CC 4]} > ḍh, ḍḍh	zd	zd	zd					sth			-t- [d]	zd	d
*st	st; ṣṭ^{[CC 4]}	st ^{[CC 2]}	st		sht [ʃt]	st ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		st ^{[CC 2]}	s; tt/ss^{[CC 5]}	st		st ^{[CC 3]}
*sḱ	ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch^{[CC 5]}	s?	sk	š?	h	?? č`; c`^{[CC 5]}	normal dev.		sk; ^{[CC 2]} kh [kʰ];^{[CC 6]} skh [skʰ] ^{[CC 7]}		sc [sk]	sc [sk]	sk ^{[CC 3]}	sh [ʃ]
*sk	sk, {śc, ch}^{[CC 8]}	sk, sč ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		?	sk ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		sk; ^{[CC 2]} kh [kʰ];^{[CC 6]} skh [skʰ] ^{[CC 7]}		sc [sk]		sk ^{[CC 3]}
*skʷ	sk, {śc, ch}^{[CC 8]}	sk, sč ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		?	sk ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		norm.		squ [skʷ]		sq ^{[CC 3]}
*t+t [tst]	tt; tth ^{[CC 9]}	st; sθ?^{[CC 10]}	st		s	s?	zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst]	ss?	st		ss		ss / st
*sǵ	jj
*sgʰ	jj^{[CC 8]}
*dt	tt	st						st	st		s		ss	ss [s]
*ddʰ	ddʰ	zd									d	t
*dʰt	ddʰ	zd, st		st					st
*pt	pt	ft	t?	pt	t				pt		pt	cht [xt]	ft ^{[CC 3]}
*ḱt	ṣṭ [ʂʈ]	št [ʃt]	st	št [ʃt]					kt		ct [kt]		ht ^{[CC 3]}	ght [t] ^{[CC 3]}
*kt	kt	xt	t?	kt					kt		ct [kt]
*kʷt	kt	xt	t?	kt					pt		ct [kt]
*ps	ps								ps		ps	s, ss	fs	ps
*ts	ts
*ḱs	kṣ	š			sh [ʃ]				ks		x [ks]		hs	x [ks]
*ks	kṣ^{[CC 4]}	xš^{[CC 4]}						(ks)	ks		x [ks]		hs
*kʷs	kṣ^{[CC 4]}	xš^{[CC 4]}					kʷs		ps		x [ks]
*gs	kṣ
*gʷs	kṣ
*ǵʰs	kṣ	ž								ks
*gʰs	kṣ
*gʷʰs	kṣ								ps
*tḱ	kṣ	š			k				kt		s
*tk	kṣ	xš							kt
*dʰǵʰ	kṣ	z		ž			tk	tk/k	khth
*dʰgʰ	kṣ						tk
*dʰgʷʰ	kṣ	γž					kts		phth		s
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English

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Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources

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[consonants-1] A capital C stands for consonant in this table

[VXV-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Between vowels

[P+H-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before an original h₂.

[CH-4] Before a consonant or original laryngeal.

[VCV-5] After a vowel.

[Verner-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).

[Cie-7] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).

[XSon-8] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Before a sonorant.

[Xie-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.

[Xu-10] Before or after a (PIE) u

[11] Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).

[YAv-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.

[ngw-13] After n.

[#X-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the beginning of a word

[final-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the end of a word.

[VXVR-16] Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)

[17] After u, r or before r, l.

[X’V-18] Before a stressed vowel

[PCP-19] Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)

[20] Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).

[Ruki-21] After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).

[rare-22] rare

[C 1]

[C 2]

[C 3]

[C 4]

[C 5]

[C 6]

[C 7]

[C 8]

[C 9]

[C 10]

[C 11]

[C 12]

[C 13]

[C 14]

[C 15]

[C 16]

[C 17]

[C 18]

[C 19]

[C 20]

[C 21]

[C 22]

[CC 1]

[CC 2]

[CC 3]

[CC 4]

[CC 5]

[CC 6]

[CC 7]

[CC 8]

[CC 9]

[CC 10]