Linguifex

Aryan

Revision as of 17:45, 3 December 2024 by Veno (talk | contribs) (→‎Development into Indo-Anatolian Languages)


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation[əi̯ˈrəʔ]
Created byVeno
Date12000-10000 BP
SettingCaucasus Mountains
Native speakers- (2024)
Pangaean Code
  • Aryan
Early form
Transitional Dialect
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History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

The history of Aryan taken into account starts with a transition from Atomism to Double Articulation by the dialects of the Low Paleolithic, mostly regarding the Pangaean Code as its ultimate source, next to the influence of the Diluvian and Hyperborean Codes. Although the actor responsible for this transition is a matter of debate even within the experiment, the loss of archaic features is assumed to coincide with the End of the Last Ice Age. At that time (roughly 12000 years Before Present), the loss of strict adherence to the primordial grammar might have allowed sound changes to take place, as seen below.

  • Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.
Weak Voiceless Stop
before laryngeal 		Weak Voiced Stop
before laryngeal 		Strong Voiceless Stop
before laryngeal 		Strong Voiced Stop
before laryngeal
/kH/→/kh/ /ƙH/→/k/ /gH/→/gɦ/ /ɠH/→/g/
/pH/→/ph/ /ƥH/→/p/ /bH/→/bɦ/ /ɓH/→/b/
/tH/→/th/ /ƭH/→/t/ /dH/→/dɦ/ /ɗH/→/d/
Weak Voiceless Stop Weak Voiced Stop Strong Voiceless Stop Strong Voiced Stop
/k/→/k/ /g/→/g/ /ƙ/→/kh/ /ɠ/→/gɦ/
/p/→/p/ /b/→/b/ /ƥ/→/ph/ /ɓ/→/bɦ/
/t/→/t/ /d/→/d/ /ƭ/→/th/ /ɗ/→/dɦ/
  • Relative articulated sounds when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.
Retracted
before
Laryngeal 		Retracted Advanced
before
Laryngeal 		Advanced
/k̠H/→/khph/ /k̠/→/kp/ /k̟H/→/khth/ /k̟/→/kt/
/p̠H/→/phth/ /p̠/→/pt/ /p̟H/→/phkh/ /p̟/→/pk/
/t̠H/→/thkh/ /t̠/→/tk/ /t̟H/→/thph/ /t̟/→/tp/
/g̠H/→/gɦbɦ/ /g̠/→/gb/ /g̟H/→/gɦdɦ/ /g̟/→/gd/
/b̠H/→/bɦdɦ/ /b̠/→/bd/ /b̟H/→/bɦgɦ/ /b̟/→/bg/
/d̠H/→/dɦgɦ/ /d̠/→/dg/ /d̟H/→/dɦbɦ/ /d̟/→/db/
/ƙ̠H/→/kp/ /ƙ̠/→/khph/ /ƙ̟H/→/kt/ /ƙ̟/→/khth/
/ƥ̠H/→/pt/ /ƥ̠/→/phth/ /ƥ̟H/→/pk/ /ƥ̟/→/phkh/
/ƭ̠H/→/tk/ /ƭ̠/→/thkh/ /ƭ̟H/→/tp/ /ƭ̟/→/thph/
/ɠ̠H/→/gb/ /ɠ̠/→/gɦbɦ/ /ɠ̟H/→/gd/ /ɠ̟/→/gɦdɦ/
/ɓ̠H/→/bd/ /ɓ̠/→/bɦdɦ/ /ɓ̟H/→/bg/ /ɓ̟/→/bɦgɦ/
/ɗ̠H/→/dg/ /ɗ̠/→/dɦgɦ/ /ɗ̟H/→/db/ /ɗ̟/→/dɦbɦ/
  • Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset.
Voiceless
Sonorant(I) 		Voiced
Sonorant(I) 		Voiceless
Sonorant(II) 		Voiced
Sonorant(II)
/j̥/→/j̥/ /j/→/j/ /w̥/→/w̥/ /w/→/w/
/n̥/→/n̥/ /n/→/n/ /m̥/→/m̥/ /m/→/m/
/l̥/→/l̥/ /l/→/l/ /r̥/→/r̥/ /r/→/r/
  • Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by ...; laryngeals ...

p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰūymás ( *pʰtʰūh1-más) > fumus heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks. 

*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]

dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di 

*h2odʲ-, *h2ódʲam "hatred"
*akt- > *ak- "sharp"
*dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"

sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)


Aryan
p *phth / *ph / *phkh; *phkʷh
t *thkh; *thkʷh / *th / *thph
k *khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth
b *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
d *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
g *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
pʼ *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
tʼ *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼ kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ *bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhgʷh
ɗ *dhgh; *dhgʷh / *dh / *dhbh
ɠ *ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh

Development into Indo-Anatolian Languages

[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

  • /ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
  • /ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
  • /əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
  • /ai̯/ > */ai̯/
  • kʰpʰ-
  • kp- > *kʷʰ-

an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals: ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals: heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent

  • pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

  • mai > *meh1


Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Albanian Armenian Hittite Tocharian Greek Latin Goidelic Gothic
>*p p; pʰ p; f p p p h; w p; pp p p / pt p ∅ f; β
>*t x x
>*k x x
>*ḱ x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2] 


thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5] 		p, pp p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] 		f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7] 		t;
c [c] [C 7] 		t s; tt/ss[C 5] t t th [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6] 		th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8] 		s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		k c [k] c [k] ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6] 		h;
∅;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3] 		k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4] 		k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9] 		k k;
q [c][C 9] 		kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9] 		ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10] 		qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11] 		ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
 wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b] -[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2] 		t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		d z [zd] > [z] d d [d] -[ð]- t
*ǵ j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3] 		z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8] 		c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		g g g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10] 		u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		b [b] -[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*pʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2] 		p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b 		b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15] 		b;
v / f[C 16]
*tʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7] 		th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17] 		d [d] -[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15] 		d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8] 		j [dz];
z[C 2] 		k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8] 		g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15] 		g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10] 		f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2] 		h;
∅[C 2] 		š [s] s;
ṣ [ʂ] 		h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
∅;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20] 		i s;
r[C 2] 		s ʃ -[h]- s;
z [C 6] 		s;
r [C 6]
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m] -[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n ∅ n n -- m [˜] n ∅
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15] 		n n;
ñ [ɲ] 		n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2] 		l /
ɫ [ɫ
> ɣ] 		l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2] 		r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
∅ 		∅ y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
∅ [C 2] 		?i i [j];
∅ [C 2] 		∅ j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f -∅- w
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
  4. ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^ a b After a vowel.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^ a b c After n.
  14. ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
  15. ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
  16. ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. ^ After u, r or before r, l.
  18. ^ Before a stressed vowel
  19. ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. ^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*tl sl kl, sl tl kl tl
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] Template:Transl [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v, d[CC 1] kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 2] sp f sp [CC 2]
/ pʿ [pʰ] 		normal dev. sp [CC 2] ? sp f sp [CC 3]
*sbʰ spʰ
*sd d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 4] st [CC 2] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 2] normal dev. st [CC 2] s; tt/ss[CC 5] st st [CC 3]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 5] normal dev. sk; [CC 2]
kh [kʰ];[CC 6]
skh [skʰ] [CC 7] 		sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 3] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] sk, sč [CC 2] normal dev. ? sk [CC 2] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 3]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 9] st; sθ?[CC 10] st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 8]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 3]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 3] ght [t] [CC 3]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps ps s, ss fs ps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣ š sh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 4] xš[CC 4] (ks)
*kʷs kʷs ps x [ks]
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*ǵʰs kṣ ž ks
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ ps
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ xš kt
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk tk/k khth
*dʰgʰ kṣ tk
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž kts phth s
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English


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Orthography

Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] Old English[V 1]
normal umlauted[V 3]
*e *e, *h₁e a e je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] ä e, ʔe, i e i; aí [ɛ][V 5] e; eo[V 6] i; ie[V 6]
*a (*a[V 7]), *h₂e o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] e; ie[V 6]
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o
*o a; ā[V 9]
*ə[V 10] *h₁[V 10] i i, ∅ ∅ a, ∅ ā ∅ e a a, ∅
*h₂[V 10] ḫ a
*h₃[V 10] ∅ o
*- *h₁-[V 11] ∅ e (a?) ∅ a, ∅ e (o) ∅
*h₂-[V 11] a ḫa a
*h₃-[V 11] a, ha o
*ē *ē, *eh₁ ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā?[V 12] ē, e, i ē ī ē ǣ
*ā (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ a o [oː] a a/o? a, ah ā > ē[V 13] ā ā ō ē
*ō *ō, *eh₃ uo u e a/ā?; ū?[V 12] a, ā ō ā; ū[V 12]
*i *i i ь i i i; e[V 14] ä i, ī i i; aí [ɛ][V 5] i
*ī *ih₁ ī i y [iː] i i ī ī ei [iː] ī
*ih₂ i
or (j)a?[V 15] 		yā ī or (j)ā?[V 15]
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō?[V 15]
*ei *ei, *h₁ei ai > ē ai > ōi,
āi > aē[V 9] 		ei; ie[V 16] i e ē ei ī ē
*oi *oi, *h₃ei ě ai; ie[V 16] e e, ai ē, ai oi ū oi ái ā ǣ
*ai (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei ai ae ai
*ēi *ēi āi > ai; ā[V 12] āi; ā(i)[V 12] i i ē ēi ī? ei [iː] ī
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u[V 12] ai; ui[V 12] e, ai ai ōi ō u[V 12] ái ā ǣ
*āi *eh₂ei ě ai āi > ēi[V 13] ae
*u *u u ъ u u u; y[V 17] ä u u u u; o[V 18] u; aú [ɔ][V 5] u; o[V 19] y
*ū *uh₁ ū y ū y; i[V 12] u ū ū ȳ
*uh₂ u
or (w)a?[V 15] 		wā ū or (w)ā?[V 15]
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō?[V 15]
*eu *eu, *h₁eu au > ō ə̄u; ao[V 9] ju iau oy e u eu ū ou iu ēo īe
*ou *ou,*h₃eu u au a o, au ou áu ēa
*au (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu aw au au
*ēu *ēu āu > au āu u iau e ū? iu ēo
*ōu *ōu a au ō áu ēa
*m̥ *m̥ a ę im̃; um̃[V 20] am a äm a, un a em em, am um um ym
*m̥̅ *mh₁ ā ìm; ùm[V 20] ama mā mē mā
*mh₂ mā > mē[V 13]
*mh₃ mō
*m̥m *m̥m am ьm/ъm im; um[V 20] am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a ę iñ; uñ[V 20] an än an a en en, an un un yn
*n̥̄ *nh₁ ā ìn; ùn[V 20] ana nā nē nā
*nh₂ nā > nē [V 13]
*nh₃ nō
*n̥n *n̥n an ьn/ъn iñ; uñ[V 20] an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ r̥ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃[V 20] al il, li; ul, lu äl al la ol li;[V 21] al ul ul; ol[V 19] yl
*l̥̄ *lh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìl; ùl[V 20] ala al lā lē lā
*lh₂ lā > lē[V 13]
*lh₃ lō
*l̥l *l̥l ir; ur[V 22] ar ьl/ъl il; ul[V 20] al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ r̥ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃[V 20] ar ir, ri; ur, ru är ar, ur ra or ri;[V 21] ar aúr [ɔr] ur; or[V 19] yr
*r̥̄ *rh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìr; ùr[V 20] ara ra rā rē rā
*rh₂ rā > rē[V 13]
*rh₃ rō
*r̥r *r̥r ir; ur[V 22] ar ьr/ъr ir; ur[V 20] ar ar ar ar
Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] normal umlauted[V 3]
Old English[V 1]

Historical and Geographical Distribution

Intersegmentals

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 36 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the inventory of the Pangaean Code in some form.

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal Voiceless *m̥ *n̥
Voiced *m *n
Plosive Voiceless *p *t *k *ʔ
Voiced *b *d *dʲ *dʷ *g
Aspirated- *ph *th *kh
Aspirated+ *bh *dh *gh
Fricative Voiceless *s *x *ħ *h
Voiced *z *ɣ *ʕ *ɦ
Vibrant Voiceless *r̥
Voiced *r
Lateral Voiceless *l̥ *t͡ɬ
Voiced *l
Approximant Voiceless *j̊ *ẘ
Voiced *j *w

Vowels

Pitch Accent

Morphology

Affixes

  • gʷaináh0
  • gʷaināsyas
  • gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Roots

Clitics

Phememes

Foundations

Lessons

Lesson 1

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person
"this" "person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"that" "person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Aryan:

*aestad dʰgʰūmás
*aes-tad *dʰgʰūmás
MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

  • h0e * eah0 *as *ats
    • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
    • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah0, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

Lesson 2

German:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative -er[1][2] -∅[3],-e[4] -e[1][4][5], -ie[2], -∅[3] -es[1], -as[2], -∅[3], -e[4] -e[1][3][6], -ie[2], -en[4][5], -er[7]
Genitive -es[2][3][6][7], -en[1][4] -er[1][2][3], -en[4] -es[2][3], -en[1][4] -er[1][2][3], -en[4]
Dative -em[1][2][3], -en[4], -e[6][7] -er[1][2][3], -en[4] -em[1][2][3], -en[4] -en[1][2][3][4][6][7]
Accusative -en[1][2][3][4] -e[1][3][4], -ie[2] -es[1][1], -as[2], -e[4] -e[1][3], -ie[2], -en[4]

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7][9] -а/-я[1][4][5], -ая[2], -ина[3], -ь[9] -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8], -мя[9] -и/ы[1][4][5][7], -ые[2], -ины[3], -а/-я[8], -и/-мена[9]
Genitive -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7], -и[9] -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -и/ы[4][5][6][9] -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[8], -мени[9] -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/-ь[4][5], -ов/-ей[6][7], ∅-/-(е)й[8], -ей/-мён(-мян)[9]
Dative -ому[1][2], -иному[3], -у/-ю[7], -и[9] -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5], -и[9] -ому[1][2], -иному[3], -у/-ю[8], -мени[9] -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ам/-ям[4][5][6][7][8], -ям/-менам[9]
Accusative.A -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7], -ь[9] -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6], -ь[9] -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8], -мя[9] -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/ь[4][5][6], -ов/-ей[7], -а/-я[8], -и/-мена[9]
Accusative.I -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7] -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6] -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8] -и/-ы[1][7], -ые[2], -ины[3], -∅/-ь[4][5][6], ∅-/-(е)й[8], -ь/-мена[9]
Instrumental -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ом/-ем[7], -ью[9] -ой/-ою//-ей[1][2][4][5][6], -иной/-иною[3], -ю[6], -ью[9] -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ом/-ем[8], -менем[9] -ими[1], -ыми[2], -иными[3], -ами/-ями[4][5][6][7][8], -ями(ьми)/-менами[9]
Prepositional -ом[1][2], -ином[3], -е[7], -и[9] -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5][6], -и[9] -ом[1][2], -ином[3], -е[8], -мени[9] -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -ах/-ях[4][5][6][7][8], -ях/-менах[9]

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

LATIN DECLENSION
Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative -e/-us[1], -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs -a[1], -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs -ud, -um[1], -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs -ī[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -ae[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -a[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive -īus[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī -īus[1], -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī -īus[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī -ōrum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum -ārum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum -ōrum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative -ī[1], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī -ī[1], -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī -ī[1][3], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative -um[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em -am[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em -ud, -um[1], -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em -ōs[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -ās[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -a[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative -ō[1][2], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē -ā[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē -ō[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative -e[1], -is -a[1], -is -ud, -um[1], -e -ī[1], -ēs -ae[1], -ēs, -a[1], -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

GREEK DECLENSION
Singular Dual Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative -ος[1], -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων -η/α[1], -(ε)ς, -ων -ον[1] -ω[1], -ε, -ονε -α[1], -ε, -ονε -ω[1] -οι[1], -ες, -ονες -αι[1], -ες -α
Genitive -ου[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος -ης/-ας[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος -ου[1] -οιν[1] -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1], -ονοιν -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1]
Dative -ῳ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῃ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῳ[1] -οιν[1], -ονοιν -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1] -οις[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι -αις[1], -οσι -οις[1]
Accusative -ον[1], -α, -ονα -ην[1], -ονα -ον[1] -ω[1] -α[1] -ω[1] -ους[1], -ονας -ας[1], -ονας -α[1]
Vocative -ε[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -η[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -ον[1] -ω[1], -ε, -ονε -α[1], -ε, -ονε -ω[1] -οι[1], -ες, -ονες -αι[1], -ες, -ονες -α[1]

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.


ARYAN DECLENSION
Singular Dual Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative *-as *-ah0 *-am *-ā *-āh0 *-ā *-ayn *-ah0in *-a
Genitive *-asyas *-āsyas -ου[1] -οιν[1] -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1], -ονοιν -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1]
Dative -ῳ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῃ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῳ[1] -οιν[1], -ονοιν -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1] -οις[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι -αις[1], -οσι -οις[1]
Accusative -ον[1], -α, -ονα -ην[1], -ονα -ον[1] -ω[1] -α[1] -ω[1] -ους[1], -ονας -ας[1], -ονας -α[1]
Vocative -ε[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -η[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -ον[1] -ω[1], -ε, -ονε -α[1], -ε, -ονε -ω[1] -οι[1], -ες, -ονες -αι[1], -ες, -ονες -α[1]

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

  • eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Lesson 3

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"

  • gánas > γόνος "offspring"

Initial clusters in the Nominative will give way to /ə/

  • ptā́r (A)> *patḗr (PIE)
  • páh5man > *póh5mn̥ > πῶμα "slid"

[*peh5] "feed, protect"



*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kpain- "killing" [n/v] (Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰen, Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kpaínas [bare noun], *kp∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kpánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h1ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h1édōm, *yédmi) > *h1édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h1ádas [result-noun]



In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV


  • the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
  • absolute construction
  • subject is ommitted
  • na pʰaírīt mai
  • pʰaírīt mai na?

h5ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276. 

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

  • pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

  • -āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

  • paid- ... *p∅dás
  • p∅dás > páds > póds
  • p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
  • p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός

Syntax

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

Prosody

Sample text

References

  • Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
  • Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
  • Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
  • Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
  • Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
  • Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung
  • Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft
  • Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
  • Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
  • Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung


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  1. ^ 3
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