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==Phonology and Orthography== | ==Phonology and Orthography== | ||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
Old Pulqer had the following short vowels: | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;" | ||
! style="width: 90px; "| | ! style="width: 90px; "| | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Close | ! style="" |Close | ||
| i | | '''i''' /i/ | ||
| u | | '''u''' /u/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Open-mid | ! style="" |Open-mid | ||
| ɛ | | '''e''' /ɛ/ | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Open | ! style="" |Open | ||
| a | | '''a''' /a/ | ||
| '''ą''' /ɑ/ | |||
|} | |||
All long vowels were converted to diphthongs, merging with some existing diphthongs: | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;" | |||
! style="width: 90px; "| | |||
! style="width: 90px; " |Front | |||
! style="width: 90px; " |Back | |||
|- | |||
! style="" |Close | |||
| '''ie''' /iə/ | |||
| '''ue''' /uə/ <br> ''ui'' /ui/ | |||
|- | |||
! style="" |Open-mid | |||
| '''ei''' /ɛɪ/ | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
! style="" |Open | |||
| '''ae''' /ae/ <br> ai /aɪ/ | |||
| '''au''' /ao/ | |||
|} | |} | ||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
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! style="" rowspan="2;" |Plosive | ! style="" rowspan="2;" |Plosive | ||
! Aspirated | ! Aspirated | ||
| '''ph | | '''ph''' /pʰ/ | ||
| '''th | | '''th''' /tʰ/ | ||
| | | | ||
| '''kh | | '''kh''' /kʰ/ | ||
| '''qh | | '''qh''' /kʷʰ/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Unaspirated | ! Unaspirated | ||
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Notes: | Notes: | ||
* | * Geminate consonants are written double: ''khapallu'' "horse". | ||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
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Examples: | Examples: | ||
* ''unu | * ''unu anne'' "a man" | ||
* ''at une khaese'' "to a house" | * ''at une khaese'' "to a house" | ||
* ''una | * ''una alpre'' "a tree" | ||
===Adjectives=== | ===Adjectives=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Nom-Acc | ! Nom-Acc | ||
| '' | | ''paunu'' | ||
| rowspan="2; | '' | | rowspan="2; | ''pauni'' | ||
| '' | | ''pauna'' | ||
| '' | | ''paune'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Gen-Dat. | ! Gen-Dat. | ||
| '' | | ''pauni'' | ||
| '' | | ''paune'' | ||
| '' | | ''pauni'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Examples: | Examples: | ||
* ''isu | * ''isu anne paunu'' "the good man" | ||
* ''isa tśaena mantśa'' "the big door" | * ''isa tśaena mantśa'' "the big door" | ||
* ''aratsueni | * ''aratsueni pauni'' "good reasons" | ||
: '''E-Stems''' | : '''E-Stems''' | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | ||
! style="width: 100px;" rowspan="2;" | '' | ! style="width: 100px;" rowspan="2;" | ''triste'' <br /> "sad" | ||
! colspan="2;" | Masculine/Feminine | ! colspan="2;" | Masculine/Feminine | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Nom-Acc | ! Nom-Acc | ||
| '' | | ''triste'' | ||
| '' | | ''tristi'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Gen-Dat. | ! Gen-Dat. | ||
| '' | | ''tristi'' | ||
| '' | | ''tristu'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Examples: | Examples: | ||
* ''isu | * ''isu anne triste'' "the sad man" | ||
* ''ise tśaene | * ''ise tśaene filte'' "the green doors" | ||
* ''isa filtśa | * ''isa filtśa filiekhe te une finne tristi'' "the happy daughter of a sad woman" | ||
====Comparison==== | ====Comparison==== | ||
The comparative of regular adjectives may be formed with the adverbs ''mai'' "more" or '' | The comparative of regular adjectives may be formed with the adverbs ''mai'' "more" or ''mankhu'' "less" followed by the positive adjective: | ||
* ''mai filiekke'' "happier" | * ''mai filiekke'' "happier" | ||
* '' | * ''mankhu triste'' "less sad" | ||
* ''mai | * ''mai nuu'' "newer" | ||
The object of comparison is introduced with ''qha'', e.g. ''mai khaltu qha | The object of comparison is introduced with ''qha'', e.g. ''mai khaltu qha faukhu'' "hotter than fire". | ||
The superlative is formed in the same way with the article preceding either the adverb (in predicates) or the noun (in attributes): | The superlative is formed in the same way with the article preceding either the adverb (in predicates) or the noun (in attributes): | ||
* ''Martsu es isu mai | * ''Martsu es isu mai filiekhe'' "Martsu is the happiest" | ||
* ''isa | * ''isa nutthe mai lunku'' "the longest night" | ||
* ''ise phersuene mai | * ''ise phersuene mai tristi te isu muntu'' "the saddest people in the world" | ||
The following adjectives have irregular comparative forms: | The following adjectives have irregular comparative forms: | ||
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! style="width: 120px;" | Superlative | ! style="width: 120px;" | Superlative | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''paunu'' "good" || ''meltśuere'' || ''isu meltśuere'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''maelu'' "bad" || ''petśuere'' || ''isu petśuere'' | | ''maelu'' "bad" || ''petśuere'' || ''isu petśuere'' | ||
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===Numerals=== | ===Numerals=== | ||
====Cardinals==== | ====Cardinals==== | ||
Cardinals are placed before the noun they qualify and most are indeclinable. Only '' | Cardinals are placed before the noun they qualify and most are indeclinable. Only ''uenu'' "one", ''tuu'' "two", or compounds ending in these numerals (e.g. ''pintiuenu'' "21") are declined, agreeing in gender, number and case with the following noun. As with English, nouns following "one" are in the singular and all other nouns, including those following compounds of "one" are in the plural. Thus, when followed by a noun, a numeral like ''pintiuenu'' will always be in the plural (e.g. ''pintiueni khaeni'' "21 dogs". Note that ''khentu'' "hundred" does not decline, but the plural ''-khenti'' used in compounds has feminine forms ''-khente'' (NApl) and ''-khenti'' (GDpl), e.g. ''tukhenti anni'' "two hundred men", ''tukhente finne'' "two hundred women". | ||
====Ordinals==== | ====Ordinals==== | ||
The ordinal numerals are adjectives that decline like any other and usually follow the noun they modify, agreeing in gender, case and number with that noun. Note that '' | The ordinal numerals are adjectives that decline like any other and usually follow the noun they modify, agreeing in gender, case and number with that noun. Note that ''priemu'' "first" means simply the first in a series when following the noun, but means "foremost, superior" when preceding (e.g. ''isu priemu arike'' "the foremost king" vs. ''isu arike priemu'' "the first man"). | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 1 | ! 1 | ||
| '' | | ''uenu, uena'' | ||
| '' | | ''priemu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2 | ! 2 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 3 | ! 3 | ||
| '' | | ''tri'' | ||
| '' | | ''theltsu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 4 | ! 4 | ||
| '' | | ''qatru'' | ||
| '' | | ''qaltu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 5 | ! 5 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 7 | ! 7 | ||
| '' | | ''setthe'' | ||
| '' | | ''setthimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 8 | ! 8 | ||
| '' | | ''ątthu'' | ||
| '' | | ''ątthaepu, ątthimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 9 | ! 9 | ||
| '' | | ''nuefe'' | ||
| ''nunu, | | ''nunu, nuefimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 10 | ! 10 | ||
| '' | | ''tekhe'' | ||
| ''tetsimu'' | | ''tetsimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 13 | ! 13 | ||
| '' | | ''tretsi'' | ||
| '' | | ''tretsimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 14 | ! 14 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 17 | ! 17 | ||
| '' | | ''tekhesetthe'' | ||
| '' | | ''tekhesetthimu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 18 | ! 18 | ||
| '' | | ''tekhątthu'' | ||
| '' | | ''tekhątthimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 19 | ! 19 | ||
| '' | | ''tekkenuefe'' | ||
| '' | | ''tekkenuefimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 20 | ! 20 | ||
| '' | | ''finti'' | ||
| '' | | ''fintimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 21 | ! 21 | ||
| '' | | ''fintiuenu'' | ||
| '' | | ''fintiuenimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 22 | ! 22 | ||
| '' | | ''fintituu'' | ||
| '' | | ''fintituimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 23 | ! 23 | ||
| '' | | ''fintitri'' | ||
| '' | | ''fintitriemu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 30 | ! 30 | ||
| '' | | ''trinta'' | ||
| '' | | ''trintimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 40 | ! 40 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 70 | ! 70 | ||
| '' | | ''setthainta'' | ||
| '' | | ''setthaintimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 80 | ! 80 | ||
| '' | | ''ąttainta'' | ||
| '' | | ''ąttaintimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 90 | ! 90 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 101 | ! 101 | ||
| ''khentu | | ''khentu uenu'' | ||
| ''khentu | | ''khentu priemu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 102 | ! 102 | ||
| ''khentu tuu'' | | ''khentu tuu'' | ||
| ''khentu | | ''khentu sekhuntu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 200 | ! 200 | ||
| '' | | ''tukhenti'' | ||
| '' | | ''tukhentimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 300 | ! 300 | ||
| '' | | ''trikhenti'' | ||
| '' | | ''trikhentimu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1000 | ! 1000 | ||
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====Fractions==== | ====Fractions==== | ||
Most fractions are identical to their ordinal form, e.g. '' | Most fractions are identical to their ordinal form, e.g. ''uenu theltsu'' "one third", ''qatru sesti'' "four sixths", ''tri qalti'' "three quarters". The word for "half" is ''metśu''. | ||
There are extended nominal forms indicating standard parts of a whole, '' | There are extended nominal forms indicating standard parts of a whole, ''meithathe'' "half", ''theltsaeltśu'' "third", ''qaltaeltśu'' "quarter", ''tsintaeltśu'' "fifth", ''sestaeltśu'' "sixth". | ||
====Multiplicatives==== | ====Multiplicatives==== | ||
Multiplicatives are formed from the cardinal numerals followed by the feminine noun '' | Multiplicatives are formed from the cardinal numerals followed by the feminine noun ''fieke'' "time" (pl. ''fieki''), e.g. ''uena fieke'' "once", ''tua fieki'' "twice", ''tri fieki'' "thrice" etc. | ||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Dat. | ! Dat. | ||
| '' | | ''nufi'' | ||
| '' | | ''pufi'' | ||
| ''isi / ise'' | | ''isi / ise'' | ||
| ''isi'' | | ''isi'' | ||
| colspan="2;" | '' | | colspan="2;" | ''sifi'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Possessive Pronouns==== | ====Possessive Pronouns==== | ||
The possessive pronouns are really adjectives that decline much like any other, agreeing in gender, case and number with the noun they modify. They may be used pronominally as a predicate (e.g. ''{THIS} es thuu'' "this is yours", or adjectivally preceding a noun (e.g. ''thua | The possessive pronouns are really adjectives that decline much like any other, agreeing in gender, case and number with the noun they modify. They may be used pronominally as a predicate (e.g. ''{THIS} es thuu'' "this is yours", or adjectivally preceding a noun (e.g. ''thua maetre'' "your mother"). There are different pronouns for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons in singular and plural, but no distinction is made between the gender of the 'subject'. The basic (masc. sing.) forms are ''meu'' "my", ''theu'' "thy, you (sg)", ''seu'' "his, her, its", ''nustru'' "our", ''fustru'' "your (pl.)" and ''isuru'' "their". For example, ''seu khaene'' "his dog" vs ''sua khattha'' "his cat" vs ''sue pakkhe'' "his cows" vs ''at sue khaese'' "to his house". | ||
The full declension is shown below: | The full declension is shown below: | ||
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! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 2nd Pl. <br /> "your" | ! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 2nd Pl. <br /> "your" | ||
! style="width: 100px;" | Nom-Acc | ! style="width: 100px;" | Nom-Acc | ||
| '' | | ''fustru'' | ||
| rowspan="2; | '' | | rowspan="2; | ''fustri | ||
| '' | | ''fustra'' | ||
| '' | | ''fustre'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Gen-Dat. | ! Gen-Dat. | ||
| '' | | ''fustri'' | ||
| '' | | ''fustre'' | ||
| '' | | ''fustri'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 3rd Pl. <br /> "their" | ! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 3rd Pl. <br /> "their" | ||
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===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
Regular verbs conjugate only in the present and imperfect indicative; all other tenses are composed through periphrasis. | |||
====Regular Verbs==== | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | ||
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 100px;" | '' | ! rowspan="2;" style="width: 100px;" | | ||
! colspan=" | ! colspan="2;" | 1. ''amaere'' "to love" | ||
! colspan="2;" | 2. ''thimiere'' "to fear" | |||
! colspan="2;" | 3. ''pheitre'' "to ask" | |||
|- | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl | |||
| ''aemu'' <br /> ''aema'' <br /> ''aema'' <br /> ''amaemu'' <br /> ''amaethi'' <br /> ''aeman'' | |||
| ''amaefu'' <br /> ''amaefa'' <br /> ''amaefa'' <br /> ''amafaemu'' <br /> ''amafaethi'' <br /> ''amaefan'' | |||
| ''thiemu'' <br /> ''thiemi'' <br /> ''thiemi'' <br /> ''thimiemu'' <br /> ''thimiethi'' <br /> ''thiemun'' | |||
| ''thimiefu'' <br /> ''thimiefa'' <br /> ''thimiefa'' <br /> ''thimifaemu'' <br /> ''thimifaethi'' <br /> ''thimiefan'' | |||
| ''pheithu'' <br /> ''pheithi'' <br /> ''pheithi'' <br /> ''pheithimu'' <br /> ''pheithithi'' <br /> ''pheithun'' | |||
| ''phethiefu'' <br /> ''phethiefa'' <br /> ''phethiefa'' <br /> ''phethifaemu'' <br /> ''phethifaethi'' <br /> ''phethiefan'' | |||
|- | |||
! Imperative | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''aema'' (sg.), ''amaethe'' (pl.) || colspan="2;" | ''thiemi'' (sg.) ''thimiethe'' (pl.) || colspan="2;" | ''pheithe'' (sg.), ''pheithithe'' (pl.) | |||
|- | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''amaere'' || colspan="2;" | ''thimiere'' || colspan="2;" | ''pheitre'' | |||
|- | |||
! Gerund | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''amantu'' || colspan="2;" | ''thimentu'' || colspan="2;" | ''phethentu | |||
|- | |||
! Past Participle | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''amaethu'' || colspan="2;" | ''thimiethu'' || colspan="2;" | ''pheithithu'' | |||
|} | |||
The other tenses are formed by compounding with one of the auxiliary verbs ''esre'' "to be" or ''aere'' "to have": | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Tense !! Auxiliary !! Main Verb !! E.g. | |||
|- | |||
! Past/Perfect | |||
| Present of ''aere'' || Past Participle || ''tśu au amaethu'' "I (have) loved" | |||
|- | |||
! Pluperfect | |||
| Imperfect of ''aere'' || Past Participle || ''tśu afia amaethu'' "I had loved" | |||
|- | |||
! Future | |||
| Present of ''aere'' || Infinitive || ''tśu au amaere'' "I will love" | |||
|- | |||
! Conditional | |||
| Imperfect of ''aere'' || Infinitive || ''tśu afia amaere'' "I would love" | |||
|} | |||
====Irregular Verbs==== | |||
: '''To Be''' | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | |||
! style="width: 100px;" | | |||
! colspan="2;" | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2;" | Subjunctive | ! colspan="2;" | Subjunctive | ||
! | ! Conditional | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Indicative | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | ! style="width: 120px;" | Present | ||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | ! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | ||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | ! style="width: 120px;" | Present | ||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | ! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | ||
! style="width: 120px;" | Past | |||
|- | |- | ||
! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl | ! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl | ||
| '' | | ''sue'' <br /> ''sei'' <br /> ''ses'' <br /> ''suemu'' <br /> ''seithi'' <br /> ''sun'' | ||
| '' | | ''eiru'' <br> ''eira'' <br> ''eira'' <br> ''eraemu'' <br> ''eraethi'' <br> ''eiran'' | ||
| '' | | ''sie'' <br /> ''sie'' <br /> ''sie'' <br /> ''siemu'' <br /> ''siethi'' <br /> ''sin'' | ||
| '' | | ''fusse'' <br> ''fussi'' <br> ''fussi'' <br> ''fusseimu'' <br> ''fusseithi'' <br> ''fussen'' | ||
| '' | | ''fueru'' <br> ''fuera'' <br> ''fuera'' <br> ''furaemu'' <br> ''furaethi'' <br> ''fueran'' | ||
| - | |- | ||
! Imperative | |||
| colspan="5;" | ''ei'' (sg.), ''este'' (pl.) | |||
|- | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| colspan="5;" | ''esre'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Gerund | ||
| colspan=" | | colspan="5;" | ''essentu'' | ||
|- | |||
! Past Participle | |||
| colspan="5;" | ''essithu'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
: '''Other Irregular Verbs''' | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | |||
! style="width: 100px;" | | |||
! colspan="2;" | 1. ''aere'' "to have" | |||
! colspan="2;" | 2. ''taere'' "to give" | |||
! colspan="2;" | 3. ''iere'' "to go" | |||
|- | |||
! Indicative | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Present | |||
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl | |||
| ''au'' <br> ''ai'' <br> ''ai'' <br> ''aimu'' <br> ''aithi'' <br> ''aun'' | |||
| ''afiu'' <br> ''afia'' <br> ''afia'' <br> ''afiaemu'' <br> ''afiaethi'' <br> ''afian'' | |||
| ''tau'' <br> ''tai'' <br> ''tai'' <br> ''taemu'' <br> ''taethi'' <br> ''tan'' | |||
| ''taefu'' <br> ''taefa'' <br> ''taefa'' <br> ''tafaemu'' <br> ''tafaethi'' <br> ''taefan'' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Imperative | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''-'' (sg.), ''-'' (pl.) || colspan="2;" | ''taethe'' (pl.) || colspan="2;" | | |||
|- | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''aere'' || colspan="2;" | ''taere'' || colspan="2;" | '''' | |||
|- | |||
! Gerund | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''afentu'' || colspan="2;" | ''tantu'' || colspan="2;" | '' | |||
|- | |||
! Past Participle | |||
| colspan="2;" | ''aefithu'' || colspan="2;" | ''taethu'' || colspan="2;" | '''' | |||
|} | |||
Like ''taere'' are ''faere'' "to do, make" and ''astaere'' "live, exist". | |||
==Vocabulary== | ==Vocabulary== | ||
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| '''body''' || ''khurpu'', m. | | '''body''' || ''khurpu'', m. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''believe''' || '' | | '''believe''' || ''kretre'', ''kreit-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''belief''' || '' | | '''belief''' || ''kretentsa'', f. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''with''' || ''khun'' | | '''with''' || ''khun'' | ||
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| '''hair''' || ''phielu'', m. | | '''hair''' || ''phielu'', m. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''rain''' || '' | | '''rain''' || ''prutśa'', f. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''door''' || ''tśaena'', f. | | '''door''' || ''tśaena'', f. | ||
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| '''fear''' || ''thimre'', ''thiem-'' | | '''fear''' || ''thimre'', ''thiem-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''sad''' || '' | | '''sad''' || ''triste'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''one''' || ''unu'' | | '''one''' || ''unu'' |
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