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[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category: Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]
[[Category: Artlangs]]
[[Category:A_posteriori]]
[[Category: A_posteriori]]
[[Category:Indo-European_languages]]
[[Category: Indo-European_languages]]
[[Category:Germanic_languages]]
[[Category: Germanic languages]]
[[Category:East_Germanic_languages]]
[[Category: East Germanic languages]]
[[Category: Valthungian]]


{{Infobox language
{{construction}}
|name = Valthungian
{{Bpnjohnson.info|Valthungian, the Grey Tongue|Grējutungiška Rasta, So Grējuga Tunga|ˈgrai̯.juˌtuŋ.giɕ.kɑ ˈrɑs.tɑ, so̞ ˈgrai̯.ju.ɡɑ ˈtuŋ.gɑ|2010|Europe, vaguely|Indo-European|Indo-European|Germanic|East Germanic|Griutungi|Old Valthungian|Middle Valthungian||qgt|grey}}
|nativename = Grējutungiška Rasta,<br />Sō Grējuga Tunga
|pronunciation = /ˈgrai̯.juˌtuŋ.giʃ.kɑ ˈrɑs.tɑ,<br />sau̯ ˈgrai̯.ju.ɡɑ ˈtuŋ.gɑ/
|creator = [[User:Bpnjohnson|BenJamin P. Johnson]],<br />
<small>creator of:<br />
<ul>
<li>[[Adzaac]]</li>
<li>[[Brooding]]</li>
<li>[[Dlatci]]</li>
<li>[[Grayis]]</li>
<li>[[Maltcégj]]</li>
<li>[[Northeadish]]</li>
<li>[[Valthungian]]</li>
<ul>
<li>''[[Griutungi]]''</li>
<li>''[[Old Valthungian]]''</li>
<li>''[[Middle Valthungian]]''</li>
</ul>
</ul>
</small>
|created = 2010
|setting =
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2 = [[w:Germanic_languages|Germanic]]
|fam3 = [[w:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]]
|fam4 = [[Griutungi]]
|fam5 = [[Old Valthungian]]
|fam6 = [[Middle Valthungian]]
|script = [[Valthungian#Alphabet_.26_Pronunciation|Valthungian Alphabet]]<br />[[w:Latin script|Latin script]] (transliteration)
|iso3 = qgt
|brcl = grey
}}


Valthungian is an [[w:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]] language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with [[w:Gothic_language|Gothic]], though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of [[w:Ulfilas|Wulfila]]. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Valthungian did consider themselves Goths (or Gutai or Gutþiudōs), and that their language was mutually intelligible with other dialects of Gothic. The Valthungian relationship to “Classical Gothic” can be thought of as analogous to the relationship between Modern High German and [[w:Old_High_German|Old High German]] – that is, not a direct lineage, but the modern languages are descended from neighboring dialects spoken by people who would likewise have considered themselves to be “Gutisks,” in the case of Valthungian, or “Diotisk” in the case of German.  
Valthungian is an [[wiki:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]] language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with [[wiki:Gothic_language|Gothic]], though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of [[wiki:Ulfilas|Wulfila]]. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Valthungian did consider themselves Goths (or Gutai or Gutþiudōs), and that their language was mutually intelligible with other dialects of Gothic. The Valthungian relationship to “Classical Gothic” can be thought of as analogous to the relationship between Modern High German and [[wiki:Old_High_German|Old High German]] – that is, not a direct lineage, but the modern languages are descended from neighboring dialects spoken by people who would likewise have considered themselves to be “Gutisks,” in the case of Valthungian, or “Diotisk” in the case of German.  


While Valthungian shares many of the areal changes common to [[w:North_Germanic_languages|North]] and [[w:West_Germanic_languages|West Germanic languages]], it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalization, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Romance and Slavic languages. Modern Valthungian can be traced back to [[Middle Valthungian]] (spoken from around 1200‒1600aD) through [[Old Valthungian]] (800‒1200aD) and ultimately to [[Griutungi]], which would likely have been thought of as a dialect of Gothic (400‒800aD).
While Valthungian shares many of the areal changes common to [[wiki:North_Germanic_languages|North]] and [[wiki:West_Germanic_languages|West Germanic languages]], it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalisation, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Romance and Slavic languages. Modern Valthungian can be traced back to [[Middle Valthungian]] (spoken from around 1200‒1600ᴀᴅ) through [[Old Valthungian]] (800‒1200ᴀᴅ) and ultimately to [[Griutungi]], which would likely have been thought of as a dialect of Gothic (400‒800ᴀᴅ).


The name “Valthungian” comes from the name ''Walðungas'' meaning “Forest-dweller,” likely related to the [[w:Thervingi|Thervingians]] (''idem''), though the Valthungian people refer to themselves as ''Grējutungišk'', which is probably from an earlier ''[[w:Greuthungi|Griutuggs]]'' (the name of an Ostrogothic tribe living along the northern shore of the Black Sea), but which underwent some semantic reanalysis over the generations and came to mean ‘the grey-tongued ones’. In turn, they call their language ''Grējutungiška Rasta'' ‘Grey-tonguish Language’ or just ''Sō Grējuga Tunga'' ‘the Grey Tongue’.
The name “Valthungian” comes from the name ''Valthungi'' – a Latin term likely derived from a pre-Old Valthungian name *''Walþungae'' – meaning “Forest-dweller,” likely a branch of or related to the [[w: Thervingi|Thervingians]] (''idem''), though the Valthungian people refer to themselves as '''''[[Contionary: grējutungišk#Valthungian|Grējutungišk]]''''', which is probably from an earlier ''[[w: Greuthungi|Griutuggs]]'' (the name of an Ostrogothic tribe living along the northern shore of the Black Sea), but which underwent some semantic reanalysis over the generations and came to mean ‘the grey-tongued ones’. In turn, they call their language '''''[[Contionary: grējutungišk#Valthungian|Grējutungiška]] [[Contionary: rasta#Valthungian|Rasta]]''''' ‘Grey-tonguish Language’ or just '''''[[Contionary: so#Valthungian|So]] [[Contionary: grējus#Valthungian|Grējuga]] [[Contionary: tunga#Valthungian|Tunga]]''''' ‘the Grey Tongue’.


==Writing System==
==Writing System==
===Alphabet & Pronunciation===
===Alphabet & Pronunciation===
Here I give the traditional Valthungian letters followed by the romanisation I use for them in the second row. This romanisation is otherwise used throughout this article.


Here I give the traditional Valthungian letters followed by the Romanization I use for them in the second row. The Romanization is used throughout this article.
{| style="border:0px; background:none;"
 
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aska.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|A a
|width=50|[ɑ]
||''[[Contionary:aska|aska]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ash’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aejus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǣ ǣ
|width=50|[e̞ː]
||''[[Contionary:ǣjus|ǣjus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘horse’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-breka.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|B b
|width=50|[b]
||''[[Contionary:breka|breka]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘birch’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-giva.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|G g
|width=50|[ɡ]
||''[[Contionary:giva|giva]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘gift’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-djus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǧ ǧ
|width=50|[ʤ]
||''[[Contionary:ǧus|ǧus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘beast’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-dagz.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|D d
|width=50|[d]
||''[[Contionary:daǧ|daǧ]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘day’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aedhi.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ð ð
|width=50|[ð]
||''[[Contionary:ǣði|ǣði]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘mother’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-egja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|E e
|width=50|[e̞]
||''[[Contionary:eǧa|eǧa]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘blade’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-akuzje.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ž ž
|width=50|[ʒ]
||''[[Contionary:akuže|akuže]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘axe’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-hagla.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|H h
|width=50|[h~x]
||''[[Contionary:hagla|hagla]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘hail’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-thronus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Þ þ
|width=50|[θ]
||''[[Contionary:þronus|þronus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘thorn’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-igil.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|I i
|width=50|[i]
||''[[Contionary:igil|igil]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘hedgehog’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-jeer.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|J j
|width=50|[j]
||''[[Contionary:jēr|jēr]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘year’
|}
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kune.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|K k
|width=50|[k~kʰ]
||''[[Contionary:kune|kune]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘family’
|-
|-
|width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-a.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-ae.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-b.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-g.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-gh.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-d.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-dh.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-e.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-lagus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|L l
|width=50|[l]
||''[[Contionary:lagus|lagus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘lake’
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">a</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-matna.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ǣ</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|M m
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">b</font></center>
|width=50|[m]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">g</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:matna|matna]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ǧ</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘person’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">d</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ð</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">e</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[ɑ]<br />''[[Contionary:aska|aska]]''<br />‘ash’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-naoths.png]]
|| <center>[e̞ː]<br />''[[Contionary:ǣjus|ǣjus]]''<br />‘horse’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|N n
|| <center>[b]<br />''[[Contionary:berka|berka]]''<br />‘birch’</center>
|width=50|[n]
|| <center>[ɡ]<br />''[[Contionary:giva|giva]]''<br />‘gift’</center>
||''[[Contionary:nǭþs|nǭþs]]''
|| <center>[ʤ]<br />''[[Contionary:ǧus|ǧus]]''<br />‘creature’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘need’
|| <center>[d]<br />''[[Contionary:daǧ|daǧ]]''<br />‘day’</center>
|| <center>[ð]<br />''[[Contionary:ǣði|ǣði]]''<br />‘mother’</center>
|| <center>[e̞]<br />''[[Contionary:erða|erða]]''<br />‘earth’</center>
|-
|-
| <center>[[File:Gutish-zh.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ore.png]]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-h.png]]</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|O o
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-th.png]]</center>
|width=50|[o̞]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-i.png]]</center>
||''[[Contionary:ore|ore]]''
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-j.png]]</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘riverbank’
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-k.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-l.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-m.png]]</center>
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ž</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-predhra.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">h</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|P p
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">þ</font></center>
|width=50|[p~pʰ]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">i</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:preðra|preðra]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">j</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘chance’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">k</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">l</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">m</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[ʒ]<br />''[[Contionary:akuže|akuže]]''<br />‘axe’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-redha.png]]
|| <center>[h]<br />''[[Contionary:hagla|hagla]]''<br />‘hail’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|R r
|| <center>[θ]<br />''[[Contionary:þornus|þornus]]''<br />‘thorn’</center>
|width=50|[r]
|| <center>[i]<br />''[[Contionary:igil|igil]]''<br />‘hedgehog’</center>
||''[[Contionary:reða|reða]]''
|| <center>[j]<br />''[[Contionary:jēr|jēr]]''<br />‘year’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘earth’
|| <center>[k,kʰ]<br />''[[Contionary:kune|kune]]''<br />‘family’</center>
|| <center>[l]<br />''[[Contionary:lagus|lagus]]''<br />‘lake’</center>
|| <center>[m]<br />''[[Contionary:matna|matna]]''<br />‘person’</center>
|-
|-
| <center>[[File:Gutish-n.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-soogila.png]]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-o.png]]</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|S s
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-p.png]]</center>
|width=50|[s]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-r.png]]</center>
||''[[Contionary:sōgila|sōgila]]''
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-s.png]]</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘sun’
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-sh.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-t.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-ch.png]]</center>
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">n</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-sjuge.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">o</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Š š
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">p</font></center>
|width=50|[ʃ]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">r</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:šuge|šuge]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">s</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘colour’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">š</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">t</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">č</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[n]<br />''[[Contionary:nǭþs|nǭþs]]''<br />‘need’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-tiijus.png]]
|| <center>[o̞]<br />''[[Contionary:orte|orte]]''<br />‘garden’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|T t
|| <center>[p,pʰ]<br />''[[Contionary:perðra|perðra]]''<br />‘chance’</center>
|width=50|[t~tʰ]
|| <center>[r]<br />''[[Contionary:rǣða|rǣða]]''<br />‘wheel’</center>
||''[[Contionary:tījus|tījus]]''
|| <center>[s]<br />''[[Contionary:sōgila|sōgila]]''<br />‘sun’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘Teu’
|| <center>[ʃ]<br />''[[Contionary:šuge|šuge]]''<br />‘color’</center>
|| <center>[t,tʰ]<br />''[[Contionary:tījus|tījus]]''<br />‘Teu’</center>
|| <center>[ʧ]<br />''[[Contionary:čusins|čusins]]''<br />‘choice’</center>
|-
|-
| <center>[[File:Gutish-u.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kjus.png]]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-v.png]]</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Č č
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-f.png]]</center>
|width=50|[ʧ]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-w.png]]</center>
||''[[Contionary:čus|čus]]''
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-oe.png]]</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘choice’
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-y.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-oa.png]]</center>
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">u</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ungula.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">v</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|U u
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">f</font></center>
|width=50|[u]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">w</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:ungula|ungula]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">œ</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘owl’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">y</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ǭ</font></center>
|-
| <center>[u]<br />''[[Contionary:uvil|uvil]]''<br />‘bad’</center>
|| <center>[v]<br />''[[Contionary:ivra|ivra]]''<br />‘boar’</center>
|| <center>[f]<br />''[[Contionary:fǣjo|fǣjo]]''<br />‘cattle’</center>
|| <center>[w]<br />''[[Contionary:wynia|wynia]]''<br />‘joy’</center>
|| <center>[ø̞]<br />''[[Contionary:œrča|œrča]]''<br />‘farmer’</center>
|| <center>[y]<br />''[[Contionary:ynča|ynča]]''<br />‘ounce’</center>
|| <center>[o̞ː]<br />''[[Contionary:ǭsus|ǭsus]]''<br />‘ox’</center>
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ivra.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|V v
|width=50|[v]
||''[[Contionary:ivra|ivra]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘boar’
|}
|}
 
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
'''Non-Alphabetic Variants'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable"
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-faejo.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|F f
|width=50|[f]
||''[[Contionary:fǣjo|fǣjo]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘cattle’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-wynia.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|W w
|width=50|[w]
||''[[Contionary:wynia|wynia]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘joy’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-roetja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ œ
|width=50|[ø̞̞]
||''[[Contionary:rœča|rœča]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘farmer’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ynkja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Y y
|width=50|[y]
||''[[Contionary:ynča|ynča]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ounce’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aosus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǭ ǭ
|width=50|[o̞ː]
||''[[Contionary:ǭsus|ǭsus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ox’
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:14pt;"|'''''Non-Alphabetic Variants'''''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aade.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ā ā
|width=50|[ɑː]
||''[[Contionary:āde|āde]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘egg’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-eemate.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ē ē
|width=50|[ɑi̯]
||''[[Contionary:ēmate|ēmate]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ant’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-iis.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ī ī
|width=50|[iː]
||''[[Contionary:īs|īs]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ice’
|-
|-
|width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-aa.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-ee.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-ii.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-oo.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-uu.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-oeoe.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-yy.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-oodhla.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ō ō
|width=50|[ɑu̯]
||''[[Contionary:ōðla|ōðla]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘inheritance’
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ā</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-uurus.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ē</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ū ū
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ī</font></center>
|width=50|[uː]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ō</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:ūrus|ūrus]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ū</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘aurochs’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">œ̄</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ȳ</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[ɑː]<br />''[[Contionary:āde|āde]]''<br />‘egg’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ooezja.png]]
|| <center>[ai̯]<br />''[[Contionary:ēls|ēls]]''<br />‘eel’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ̄ œ̄
|| <center>[iː]<br />''[[Contionary:īs#Etymology_2|īs]]''<br />‘ice’</center>
|width=50|[ø̞ː]
|| <center>[au̯]<br />''[[Contionary:ōðla|ōðla]]''<br />‘inheritance’</center>
||''[[Contionary:œ̄ža|œ̄ža]]''
|| <center>[uː]<br />''[[Contionary:ūrus|ūrus]]''<br />‘aurochs’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘fortune’
|| <center>[ø̞ː]<br />''[[Contionary:auge|auge]]''<br />‘island’</center>
|| <center>[yː]<br />''[[Contionary:ȳftigi|ȳftigi]]''<br />‘timeliness’</center>
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-yyfti.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ȳ ȳ
|width=50|[yː]
||''[[Contionary:ȳfti|ȳfti]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘custom’
|}
|}
|}


Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered to be part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically to be the equivalent of its doubled short counterpart. That is, ‹ā› is equivalent to ‹aa›, ‹ē› to ‹ee›, ‹ī› to ‹ii›, and so on. (The long vowels ‹ǣ› and ‹ǭ› are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their Romanized forms.)
Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically equivalent to its doubled short counterpart. That is, ⟨ā⟩ is equivalent to ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ē⟩ to ⟨ee⟩, ⟨ī⟩ to ⟨ii⟩, and so on. (The long vowels ⟨ǣ⟩ and ⟨ǭ⟩ are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their romanised forms.)


(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented in this wiki are a [[Valthungian#Romanization|Romanization]] of the letters shown in the table above.)
(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin‑ and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented throughout this wiki are a [[Valthungian#Romanisation|romanisation]] of the letters shown in the table above.)


===Orthography===
===Orthography & Allophony===
The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:
The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:


# The letter ‹n› is used before ‹g› or ‹k› to indicate the velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ‹ng› is [ŋg] and ‹nk› is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
* The letter ⟨n⟩ before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ⟨ng⟩ is [ŋɡ] and ⟨nk⟩ is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
# In combinations where ‹ng› is followed by another nasal consonant, [g] is elided in speech: ‹ngm› is [ŋm] and ‹ngn› is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋg.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ‹mbn›, ‹mbm›, ‹ndm›, and ‹ndn›; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
** In combinations where ⟨ng⟩ is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: ⟨ngm⟩ is [ŋm] and ⟨ngn⟩ is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ⟨mbn⟩, ⟨mbm⟩, ⟨ndm⟩, and ⟨ndn⟩; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
# The combination ‹rju› is realized as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
* In the combinations ⟨hw⟩ (i.e. ⟨hu⟩ followed by a vowel), ⟨hl⟩, and ⟨hr⟩,⟨h⟩ is realised as [x].
# The diphthong ‹eu› is realized as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''sneugna'' [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
* The sequence ⟨lju⟩ is realised as [ljɛu̯] (rather than the expected [lju]). (E.g. ''ljuga'' [ljɛu̯.ɡa] ‘lion’.)
# The diphthong ‹œu› is realized as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]).
* The sequence ⟨rju⟩ is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
# For some speakers, word-final ‹þs› may be realized as [t̪s].
* The diphthong ⟨eu⟩ is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''þreugi'' [θrɛu̯.ɡi] ‘wrath’.)
# For some speakers, medial ‹tl› (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realized as [dɮ].
* The diphthong ⟨œu⟩ is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. ''grœunis'' [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.)
 
* Medial ⟨dl⟩ (usually derived from earlier /ll/) is realised as [dɮ]. (E.g. ''hadla'' [ha.dɮa] ‘mansion’.)
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:
* For some speakers, word-final ⟨þs⟩ may be realised as [t̪s].
# The stress is not on the first syllable, and
* Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as ⟨u⟩ (i.e. ⟨du⟩, ⟨tu⟩, ⟨þu⟩, ⟨hu⟩, ⟨gu⟩,⟨ku⟩ and ⟨su⟩.)
# the stressed syllable is a short vowel. (Long vowels cannot be unstressed, though they may sometimes take secondary stress.)
** This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so ''iþ'' + ''wītna'' → ''iþwītna'', not **''iþuītna''.
For example, ''fergúne'' ‘mountain’, but ''garǣts'' ‘correct’.
 
====Ligatures & Liaisons====
 
When two like vowels of equal value come together, the words may form a ligature. This is most common with the articles (''sā'' + ''a-'', ''sō'' + ''u-'', etc.) and particles (e.g ''nī'' + ''i-'').


* '''Articles'''
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent ''only'' if:
** Mandatory:
* The stress is ''not'' on the first syllable.
*** sā, hwā, twā + a-, ā- → s’ā-, hw’ā-, tw’ā-
** (By default, stress falls on the primary syllable.)
**** ''sā aplas'' → ''s’āplas'', ‘the apple’
* The stressed vowel is short.
**** ''twā aðna'' → ''tw’āðna'' ‘two seasons’
** (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the [[Middle Valthungian]] period.)
*** sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s’ō-, þ’ō-, h’ō-
* The stressed vowel is not ⟨œ⟩ or ⟨y⟩.
**** ''sō uréča'' → ''s’ōréča'', ‘the persuit’
** (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i‑umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)
**** ''sō ōs'' → ''s’ōs'', ‘the ewe’
*** þǣ, twǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ’ǣ-, tw’ǣ-
**** ''þǣ ǣjus'' → ''þ’ǣjus'' ‘the horses’
**** ''twǣ elis'' → ''tw’ǣlis'' ‘two others’
*** nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n’ī-, þr’ī-, h’ī-
**** ''nī ist'' → ''n’īst'', ‘isn’t’
**** ''hī īsran'' → ''h’īsran'' ‘this iron’
** Optional:
***sō, þō + V- → sw’V-, þw’V-
**** ''sō akuže, sw’akuže'' ‘the axe’
**** ''þō ī, þw’ī'' ‘those which’
<!--===Alternative Writing Systems===


====Cursive====
For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gavr'''œ'''čin'' ‘to handle’.


''Coming soon...''-->
===Orthographic Variants===
There are a few regional and stylistic variations in the orthography of Valthungian romanisation.
* In some areas, rather than indicating non-initial stress by placing an acute diacritic on the stressed vowel, the vowel of the initial ''unstressed'' syllable is marked with a grave diacritic. This is not standard anywhere, but is often used in children’s books and language learning tools, as it is a more consistent indicator of stress than the acute, which is not deployed over long vowels or rounded front vowels. It is often used in combination with the acute stress system, and the acute may also be used on otherwise exempt characters. E.g.:
** ''ǧukospríngna'' ‘to leap up’ → ''ǧùkospringna'' or ''ǧùkospríngna''
** ''gadrynis'' ‘symphony’ → ''gàdrynis'' or ''gàdrýnis''
** ''miðlǣði'' ‘sympathy’ → ''mìðlǣði'' or ''mìðlǣ́ði'' (sometimes ''mìðlǽði'')
* ⟨w⟩ may be used in place of word-initial ⟨v⟩ or pre-vocalic ⟨u⟩ to represent /w/ as a more direct transliteration of the letter ''vynia''. There is no logical or efficient reason for this transliteration to be split up the way it is in the standard language: Its existence is purely aesthetic, and many people are not as interested in aesthetics as efficiency.
* Conversely, there are some who romanise ''jēr'' as ⟨i⟩ rather than as ⟨j⟩, likely out of spite towards those who use ⟨w⟩ as above.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
Line 276: Line 364:


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
<small>''(Pardon the compactified consonant table. I know it doesn't quite all line up “properly,” but it does make more sense this way as regards the Valthungian language. If in doubt, rely on the transcription and not the row or column.)''</small>
''(Pardon the compactified consonant table. I know it doesn't quite all line up “properly,” but it does make more sense this way as regards the Valthungian language. If in doubt, rely on the transcription and not the row or column.)''
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!width=100px|
!width=100px|
Line 289: Line 378:
|'''t · d'''<br />[t̪~t̪ʰ · d̪]
|'''t · d'''<br />[t̪~t̪ʰ · d̪]
|
|
|'''č · ǧ'''<br />[ʧ · ʤ]
|'''č · ǧ'''<br />[ʨ · ʥ]
|'''k · g'''<br />[k~kʰ · g]
|'''k · g'''<br />[k~kʰ · ɡ]
|-
|-
!'''Nasal'''
!'''Nasal'''
Line 297: Line 386:
|
|
|
|
|''' · n'''<small><sup>1</sup></small><br />[ŋ]
|''' · n'''<ref>Before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩.</ref><br />[ŋ]
|-
|-
!'''Fricative'''
!'''Fricative'''
Line 303: Line 392:
|'''ð · þ'''<br />[ð · θ]
|'''ð · þ'''<br />[ð · θ]
|'''s ·'''<br />[s]
|'''s ·'''<br />[s]
|'''š · ž'''<br />[ʃ · ʒ]
|'''š · ž'''<br />[ɕ · ʑ]
|'''h ·'''<br />[h]
|'''h ·'''<br />[h~x]
|-
|-
!'''Approximant'''
!'''Approximant'''
|''' · w'''<br />[w]
|''' · w/u'''<br />[w~v]
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪]
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪]
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ]
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ]
Line 313: Line 402:
|
|
|}
|}
<small><sup>1</sup></small>Before ‹g› or ‹k›.<br />
===[r]-Assimilation===


This is a persistent rule that does not have much effect on declensions within the language, but does have some effect on the development of certain words.  This rule is described in the Rules chapter of this document in Assimilation of [ɾ].  Specifically, /r/ is deleted when immediately followed by /ž/. For example, the possessive adjective ''inkur'' ‘your’, from earlier ''igqar'' /inkwar/ has the genitive plural form ''inkuža'' from earlier ''igqaraizō'' /inkwarɛ̄zō/ rather than the otherwise expected **''inkurža''.  Similarly, ''marzjan'' ‘to offend’ and ''baurza'' /bɔrza/ ‘perch, bass’ → ''mežin'', ''boža''.
===Synchronic Changes and Reflexes of Diachronic Changes===
 
====Voicing Alternation====
===Voicing Alternation===
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings.  (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ⟨f⟩, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ⟨b⟩ used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’.  Likewise the relationship between ⟨þ⟩ and⟨d⟩. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian:  
 
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian.  (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ‹f› or ‹þ›, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ‹b› or ‹d›, used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’. There are three main realizations of this rule in Valthungian:


*v → f
*v → f
Line 329: Line 413:
The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:
The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:


*‹f› or ‹þ› occur before ‹s› in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''.
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''.
*‹f› or ‹þ› occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''.
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''.
*‹f› occurs when word-final or before ‹t› in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''.
*⟨f⟩ occurs when word-final or before ⟨t⟩ in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''.
*‹þ› also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ‹s› before ‹t› in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first- and third-person preterit ''baþ'' but second-person ''bast''.
*⟨þ⟩ also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ⟨s⟩ before ⟨t⟩ in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first‑ and third-person preterit ''baþ'' but second-person ''bast''.
*The implications for ‹s› and ‹ž› can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ‹s› throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.
*The implications for ⟨s⟩ and ⟨ž⟩ can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ⟨s⟩ throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.


Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ‹f› or ‹þ› from earlier ‹h› which is ''not'' affected by this rule.
Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ from earlier ⟨h⟩ which is ''not'' affected by this rule.


===Palatalization===
====Palatalisation====
Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:


Palatalization is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalization that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:
*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ⟨d⟩ or ⟨g⟩ become palatalised before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of a‑, i‑, and u‑stems (but not feminine ō‑stems).  E.g. Griutungi ''*dags'' ‘day’, ''*gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''graǧ''. This type of palatalisation only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Griutungi/Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
 
*A much more common form of palatalisation, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ⟨j⟩, e.g. strong masculine ja‑stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ‹d› or ‹g› become palatalized before ‹s› in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems).  E.g. Gothic ''dags'' ‘day’, ''gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''garǧ''. This type of palatalization only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
*A much more common form of palatalization, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ‹j›, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
**d or g + j → ǧ
**d or g + j → ǧ
**t or k + j → č
**t or k + j → č
**s or h + j → š
**s or h + j → š
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ‹z› eventually became ‹ž›, but that’s not applicable to this section.)
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ⟨z⟩ eventually became ⟨ž⟩.)


Palatalization of the latter type often goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.
Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.


===[b]/[v] Alternation===
====[b]/[v] Alternation====
A less common alternation is that of ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩.  This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of ⟨v⟩ to ⟨b⟩; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ⟨j⟩ are able to shift from ⟨b⟩ to ⟨v⟩ when intervocalic, but those with ⟨j⟩ are blocked from spirantizing.


A less common alternation is that of ‹b› and ‹v›.  This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalization (above), but instead of a true palatalization, instead there is a shift of ‹v› to ‹b›; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ‹j› are able to shift from ‹b› to ‹v› when intervocalic, but those with ‹j› are blocked from spirantizing.  
For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja'').


For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''drōbja'').
====Umlaut====
Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language, and may appear analogically in certain words.  


===Umlaut===
*The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted.  All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted.
 
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy.
Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language.
*Verbs ending in ''‑jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''‑in'' in Valthungian.
 
*The accusative singular of nouns with palatalization ''are not'' umlauted.  All other forms of nouns with palatalization ''are'' umlauted.
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted (except for the 3rd person singular in formal speech). (First person singular is palatalized ''and'' umlauted.)
*Most class 1 weak verbs and strong verbs ending in ''–jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''–in'' in Valthungian.


Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:
Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:


*a → e - ''s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin''
*a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin''
*ā → ǣ - ''hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''n''
*ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''šin''
*ǭ (''Got''. ‹áu›) → œ̄ - ''h'''au'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin''
*ǭ (''Got''. ⟨áu⟩) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin''
*o (''Got''. ‹aú›) → œ - ''þ'''au'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þ'''œ'''ršin''
*o (''Got''. ⟨aú⟩) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þr'''œ'''šin''
*ō → œu - ''hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hw'''œu'''čin''
*ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin''
*u → y - ''h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin''
*u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin''
*ū → ȳ - ''hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin''
*ū → ȳ - ''*hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin''
 
NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type is present in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, or front umlaut.
 
===Coronal Consonant Assimilation===


This rule has a formidable name, but is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ‹t› or ‹st›, the coronal consonant becomes s. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person preterit strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''.
NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j‑umlaut, u/w‑umlaut, and a‑umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j‑umlaut, also known as i‑umlaut, front umlaut, or i‑mutation.


===Syncope of Unstressed Non-High Middle Vowel===
====Coronal Consonant Assimilation====
This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ⟨t⟩ or ⟨st⟩, the former consonant ⟨s⟩. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''.


...um, working on it. I'll get back to you on this one...
====Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking====
 
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like *''bagms'' and *''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ending ''‑an'' to ''‑n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi *''brōþar'' ‘brother’ (Gothic ''brōþar'') and later Old Valthungian ''brouðar'' became Middle Valthungian ''brôðʀ'' with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian ''brōðra''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of ⟨a⟩after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state.
===Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking===
 
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like ''bagms'' and ''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ''-an'' to ''-n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, ''brōþar'' ‘brother’ became ''brōðra'' via an intermediate */brōðr̩/. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the ‹a› before the sonorant could not be deleted; if it were, the word would have been unpronounceable. This metathesis (which, in reality, is not really metathesis, but that’s what I’m calling it for now) is also blocked after any non-intervocalic voiced continuant; that is, V[v/ð]S shifts as expected (e.g. ''widan'' > ''wiðn̩'' > ''wiðna''), but VC[v/ð]S does not (e.g. ''haldan'' > ''halðan'', not **''halðna'').


The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:
The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:


*Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in ‹–m› have the ending of ‹–am› rather than ‹–ma›, e.g. ''worms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''wormam'' rather than **''wormma''.
*Dative plural a‑stem nouns whose roots end in ⟨‑m⟩ have the ending of ⟨‑am⟩ rather than ⟨‑ma⟩, e.g. ''vroms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''vromam'' rather than **''vromma''.
*Masculine accusative plural strong a-stem nouns ending in ‹–n› have the ending of ‹–ans› rather than ‹–nas›, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnnas''.
*Masculine strong a‑stem nouns ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have the the dative plural ending of ⟨‑am⟩ (as above) and the accusative plural ending of ⟨‑ans⟩ rather than ⟨‑nas⟩, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''.
*Infinitives of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs whose roots end with ‹lð›, ‹lv›, ‹rð›, or ‹rv› have ‹–an› instead of ‹–na›, e.g. Gothic ''þaurban'' becomes ''þorvan'' rather than the otherwise expected **''þorvna''.
*Strong a‑stem adjectives ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have a masculine accusative singular of ⟨‑an⟩ rather than ⟨‑na⟩, e.g. ''ǣns'' → ''ǣnan'', not ''**ǣnna''
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''-anþ'' rather than **''naþ''.
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''‑anþ'' rather than **''‑naþ''.
 
===Assimilation of [r] and [s]===


====Assimilation of [r] and [s]====
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.


The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular.  E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → ''wers'', ''druss'' → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus''.
The change initially applies to “light”‑syllable nouns with stems ending in ⟨‑s⟩ or ⟨‑r⟩ in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ⟨‑z⟩ in the nominative singular.  E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Post-Germanic Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → *''wers'', *''druss'' → (r/s‑Assimilation) → Griutungi ''wer'', ''drus'' (cf. Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus'').


Later, beginning around the time of Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' (''mentula'') which became ''tairs'' in Gothic, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)
Later, beginning around the time of Early Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ⟨‑r⟩do not take an (additional) ⟨‑s⟩ in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r‑rule (instead of the s‑rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)


===Affix Anaptyxix===
====Affix Anaptyxis====
When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters. This is just part of a larger change in the general structure of the language in which many unstressed syllables appeared unbidden in Late Middle and Early Modern Valthungian causing the language to be almost entirely iambic. In Modern Valthungian all stressed syllables (primary and secondary) must de separated by an unstressed syllable.


When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters.  Some of the most frequent are:
Some of the most frequent are:
*af+f: Gothic ''affilhan'' → ''afafílþna'' ‘to hide away’
*af+f: Griutungi ''*affilhan'' → ''af'''a'''flījan'' ‘to hide away’
*fer+r: Gothic ''fairrinnan'' → ''ferarítnan'' ‘to attain’
*fer+r: Griutungi ''*ferrinnan'' → ''fer'''a'''rítnan'' ‘to attain’
*un+n: Gothic ''unnutans'' → ''unanútans'' ‘unused; useless’
*un+n: Griutungi ''*unnutans'' → ''un'''a'''nútans'' ‘unused; useless’


However, the prefix ''us-'' becomes ''ut-'': Gothic ''ussandjan'' → ''utsenǧin'' ‘to send out’
However, the prefix ''us‑'' becomes ''ut‑'': Griutungi ''*ussandjan'' → ''utsenǧin'' ‘to send out’
 
<!--===Phonemic Inventory===
-->


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
===Personal Pronouns===
===Personal Pronouns===
The genitive pronouns form the base of the possessive determiners, but the third person non-reflexive genitives are never inflected. The third person singular and plural reflexive pronouns are identical. The non-singular pronouns may also take a reciprocal particle ''mīsa'', roughly equivalent to ‘each other’ or ‘one another.’


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
|-
!width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !!
!width=100px| &nbsp; !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !!
|-
|-
!1sg  
!1sg  
Line 436: Line 508:
|-
|-
!3sg.fem  
!3sg.fem  
| sī || ižas || iža || ī, iža ||align="left"| ''she, her, (to) her, her''
| sī || ižis || iža || ī, iža ||align="left"| ''she, her, (to) her, her''
|-
|-
!1du  
!1du  
| wit || unkar || unkis || unk ||align="left"| ''we two, our, (to) us, us''
| wit || unkra || unkis || unk ||align="left"| ''we two, our, (to) us, us''
|-
|-
!2du  
!2du  
| jut || inkur || inkus || ink ||align="left"| ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you''
| ǧut || inkur || inkus || inko ||align="left"| ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you''
|-
|-
!1pl  
!1pl  
| wīs || unsar || unsis || uns ||align="left"| ''we all, our, (to) us, us''
| wīs || unstra || unsis || uns ||align="left"| ''we all, our, (to) us, us''
|-
|-
!2pl  
!2pl  
| jūs || ižur || ižus || ižus ||align="left"| ''you/ye all, your, (to) you, you''
| jūs || ižur ||colspan=2| ižus ||align="left"| ''you/ye all, your, (to) you, you''
|-
|-
!3pl.masc  
!3pl.masc  
Line 458: Line 530:
!3pl.fem  
!3pl.fem  
| ižas || ižas  
| ižas || ižas  
|-
|}
|}<!--===Relative Pronouns===


There are two types of relative pronouns in Valthungian, and although they are used interchangeably, I present them here in two separate tables: The first (more common) forms are with the Gothic clitic particle ''ei-'' having separated from the pronouns (see Clitic Separation), and the second, more “traditional” forms where the clitic is still attached to the word.
===Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns===
The third person reflexive pronouns are inherited from Indo-European. The other pronouns form their reflexives from a compound with the third person form. The accusative and dative for most forms are merged.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
!width=100px| &nbsp; !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !!
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.!!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!1sg
| misīn ||colspan=2| mišk ||align="left"| ''myself''
|-
|-
| sg.masc || is ī || þis ī || þatm’ī || þan ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || iži|| þiži || þetmi || þeni
!2sg
| þisīn ||colspan=2| þišk ||align="left"| ''thyself''
|-
|-
| sg.neu || þat ī || þis ī || þatm’ī || þat ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þī, þeti || þiži || þetmi || þī, þeti
!3sg
| sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''himself, herself, itself, &c''
|-
|-
| sg.fem || sō ī, sw’ī || þižas ī || þiž’ī || þō ī, þw’ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || sī || þižaži || þiži || þī
!1du
| unkra sīn ||colspan=2| unkišk ||align="left"| ''ourselves''
|-
|-
| pl.masc || īs ī, þǣ ī || þiž’ī || þǣm ī || þans ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || iži || þiži || þǣmi || þenǧi
!2du
| inkur sīn ||colspan=2| inkusk ||align="left"| ''yourselves''
|-
|-
| pl.neu || þō ī, þw’ī || þiž’ī || þǣm ī || þō ī, þw’ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þœugi || þiži || þǣmi || þœ̄gi
!1pl
| unstra sīn ||colspan=2| unsišk ||align="left"| ''ourselves''
|-
|-
| pl.fem || þōs ī || þiž’ī || þǣm ī || þōs ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þœuži || þiži || þǣmi || þœuži
!2pl
| ižur sīn ||colspan=2| ižusk ||align="left"| ''yourselves''
|-
|-
!3pl
| sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''themselves''
|}
|}
-->
 
The reciprocal is formed with the particle '''''mīsa'''''. It does not inflect.


===Indefinite Pronouns===
===Indefinite Pronouns===
The interrogative and negative pronouns can take the adverbial complement ''hun'', which gives them the sense of ‘any’. Additionally, the interrogative pronouns may double as elective pronouns. For example, ''huat'' ‘what’ or ‘something’; ''huat hun'' ‘anything’.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
Line 489: Line 574:
|-
|-
!inter.masc  
!inter.masc  
| hwas ||rowspan=2| hwis ||rowspan=2| hwatma || hwan ||align="left"| ''who, whose, to whom, whom''
| huas ||rowspan=2| huis ||rowspan=2| huatma || huan ||align="left"| ''who, whose, to whom, whom''
|-
|-
!inter.neu  
!inter.neu  
| hwā || hwat ||align="left"| ''what, &c''
| huat || huat ||align="left"| ''what, &c''
|-
|-
!inter.fem  
!inter.fem  
| hwō || hwižas || hwiža || hwō ||align="left"| ''who, &c''
| huō || huižis || huiža || huō ||align="left"| ''who, &c''
|-
!expl.
| im || - || - || (im) ||align="left"| ''it, there''
|-
!univ.masc
| huažuþ ||rowspan=3| huižuþ ||rowspan=2| huatmaþ || huanaþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c''
|-
!univ.neu
| huāþ || huāþ ||align="left"| ''everything, everything’s, &c''
|-
!univ.fem
| huōþ || huižaþ || huōþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c''
|-
!neg.masc
| nījus ||rowspan=2| nījus ||rowspan=2| nījutma || nījun ||align="left"| ''noöne, noöne’s, &c''
|-
!neg.neu
| nījut || nījut ||align="left"| ''nothing, nothing’s, &c''
|}
 
===Distributive Pronouns===
The distributive pronouns are non-singular pronouns formed when the personal pronouns were fused with the distributive particles ''huaðru'' ‘each of two’ and ''huerižu'' ‘each of many’. In most forms they have now become inseparable from their root components; e.g. compare the dual genitive second person ''inkur'' and distributive ''huaðrižu'', but the distributive pronoun ''inkuáðrižu''. While the distributives as determiners, by definition, take a singular verb, the distributive pronouns take the non-singular verb of their respective pronouns, e.g. ''Aplas huerižu gatiða itnas'' ‘Each apple was eaten’, but ''Īshuerižu gatiðun itna'' ‘Each of them was eaten’.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
!width=100px|  !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=70px| Acc. !!
|-
!1du
| withuáðruþ || unkuáðrižuþ || unkuáðratmaþ || unkuáðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of us''
|-
!2du
| ǧuthuaðruþ || inkuaðrižuþ || inkuaðratmaþ || inkuaðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of you''
|-
!1pl
| wīshuerižuþ || unshuerižuþ || unshueritmaþ || unshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of us''
|-
!2pl
| jūshuerižuþ || ižuhuerižuþ || ižushueritmaþ || ižushuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of you''
|-
!3pl.masc
| īshuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| ižahuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| imhueritmaþ || inshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
|-
!3pl.neu
| ižahuerituþ || ižahuerituþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
|-
!3pl.fem
| ižashueriþ || ižashueriþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
|}
 
==Determiners==
===Demonstratives===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Proximal (“this”)
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Medial (“that”)
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Distal (“yonder”)
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| his
|rowspan=2| his
|rowspan=2| hitma
| hin
| sā
|rowspan=2| þis
|rowspan=2| þatma
| þan
| jǣns
| rowspan=2| jǣnis
| rowspan=2| jǣnatma
| jǣnan
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| hit
| hit
| þat
| þat
| jǣn
| jǣn
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| hī, hiža
| hižis
| hiža
| hī, hiža
| sō
| þižis
| þiža
| þō
|rowspan=3| jǣna
| jǣnižis
|colspan=2| jǣna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| hīs
|rowspan=3| hiža
|rowspan=3| him
| hins
| þǣ
|rowspan=3| þiža
|rowspan=3|  þǣm
| þans
|rowspan=3| jǣniža
|rowspan=3| jǣnam
| jǣnans
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| hī, hiža
| hī, hiža
| þō
| þō
| jǣna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| hižis
| hižis
| þōs
| þōs
| jǣnas
| jǣnas
|-
|}
 
===Articles===
Valthungian has two definite articles, '''''he''''' and '''''sa''''', both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘this’ and ‘that’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, ''sa'' is usually preferred. These are simply unstressed equivalents of the demonstratives ''his'' (proximal) and ''sā'' (medial). The distal demonstrative, ''jǣns'', is never used as an article.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Proximal (“this”)
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Medial (“that”)
|-
!width=100px| &nbsp;
!width=75px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=75px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=75px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=75px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| he*, his†
|rowspan=2| his
|rowspan=2| him
| he*, hin†
| sa*, s·†
|rowspan=2| þis
|rowspan=2| þam
| þa*, þan†
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| he*, hit†
| he*, hit†
| þa*, þat†
| þa*, þat†
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| hi*, hiž·†
| his, hižis
| hiža*, hiž·†
| hi*, hiž·†
| so*, s·†
| þis, þižis
| þiža*, þiž·†
| þo*, þ·†
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| his
|rowspan=3| hiža
|rowspan=3| him
| hins
| þe
|rowspan=3| þiža
|rowspan=3|  þǣm
| þans
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| hi*, hiž·†
| hi*, hiž·†
| þo*, þ·†
| þo*, þ·†
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| hižis
| hižis
| þos
| þos
|-
|}
<small><nowiki>*</nowiki> Form used before a consonant. † Form used before a vowel.</small>
 
There are complex rules around how and when to use the elided forms of the articles. For simplicity’s sake it is broken down into forms used before vowels or consonants, though this doesn’t always apply to all vowels or all consonants. Expect a more detailed article on liaison someday maybe.
 
There is no indefinite article in Valthungian.
 
===Other Determiners===
The determiners are an important word class in Valthungian because they trigger the choice of whether to use a strong or weak adjective in the noun phrase they introduce. Though most adjectives follow their nouns, determiners precede them. A non-exhaustive list follows:
 
====''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' ‘all’====
This determiner is inflectionally a little interesting because it has evolved an insertive /d/ in parts of the inflection due to changes to the geminates in [[Old Valthungian]]. When ''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' is used in conjunction with another determiner, it is declined as a weak adjective and has the meaning of ‘entire’ or ‘complete’.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| als ‘all’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| als
|rowspan=2| adlis
|rowspan=2| adlatma
| adlan
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| al
| al
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| adla
| adlažis
|colspan=2| adla
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| adlaža
|rowspan=3| adlam
| adlans
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| adla
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| adlas
| adlas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: ǣnagis#Valthungian|ǣnagis]]'' ‘any, whichever’====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| ǣnagis ‘any’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ǣnagis
|rowspan=2| ǣnagis
|rowspan=2| ǣnaǧitma
| ǣnaǧin
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| ǣnage
| ǣnage
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| ǣnaǧižis
|colspan=2| ǣnaǧa
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| ǣnaǧa
|rowspan=3| ǣnaǧiža
|rowspan=3| ǣnaǧim
| ǣnaǧins
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ǣnaǧa
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| ǣnaǧis
| ǣnaǧis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: bǣ#Valthungian|bǣ]]'' ‘both’ & [[Contionary: þrǣ#Valthungian|þrǣ]] ‘all three’====
Note that only plural forms of these determiners exist, because it is impossible to have both or all three of a singular noun.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| bǣ ‘both’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| þrǣ ‘all three’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=4|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.
| bǣ
|rowspan=3| beǧa
|rowspan=3| bǣm
| bans
| þrǣ
|rowspan=3| þrǣža
|rowspan=3| þrǣm
| þrans
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.
| bā
| bā
| þrā
| þrā
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.
| bōs
| bōs
| þreǧis
| þreǧis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|elis]]'' ‘other, another’====
''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|Elis]]'' can also be used as an adjective to mean ‘different’, in which case it follows the noun and may have a weak declension.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| elis ‘other’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| elis
|rowspan=2| elis
|rowspan=2| elitma
| elin
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| elit
| elit
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| eližis
|colspan=2| elia
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| elia
|rowspan=3| eliža
|rowspan=3| elim
| elins
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| elia
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| elis
| elis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: huaðruþ#Valthungian|huaðruþ]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužiþ#Valthungian|hreužiþ]]'' ‘each one’====
Note that only singular forms exist for ''each'' (*ahem*) of these determiners, because what is being discussed is a single noun out of, respectively, two or more than two. The unusual ''‑þ'' ending is the result of compounding with earlier ''‑uh''.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huaðruþ ‘each (of two)’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| hreužiþ ‘each (of many)’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=4|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=3| huaðruþ
|rowspan=3| huaðrižuþ
|rowspan=2| huaðratmaþ
| huaðranaþ
|rowspan=3 colspan=2| hreužiþ
|rowspan=2| hreužitmaþ
| hreužinaþ
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg
|rowspan=2| hwaðraþ
|rowspan=2| hreužiþ
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| huaðraþ
| hreužiþ
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: huaðra#Valthungian|huaðra]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužis#Valthungian|hreužis]]'' ‘which’====
The dual form (''huaðra'') only exists in the singular, as there can only be a singular option when choosing between two nouns, but ''hreužis'' can be singular (“which one”) or plural (“which ones”).
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huaðra ‘which (of the two)’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| hreužis ‘which (of many)’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=3| huaðra
|rowspan=2| huaðris
|rowspan=2| huaðratma
| huaðran
| hreužis
|rowspan=3| hreužis
|rowspan=2| hreužitma
| hreužin
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| huaðra
| hreužit
| hreužit
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| huaðražis
| huaðra
| hreuža
|colspan=2| hreuža
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3 colspan=4| —
|rowspan=2| hreuža
|rowspan=3| hreužiža
|rowspan=3| hreužim
| hreužins
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| hreuža
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| hreužis
| hreužis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: huǣjus#Valthungian|huǣjus]]'' ‘how much, how many’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huǣjus ‘how much, how many’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| huǣjus
|rowspan=2| huǣjugis
|rowspan=2| huǣjugatma
| huǣjugna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| huǣjo
| huǣjo
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| huǣjuga
| huǣjugažis
|colspan=2| huǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| huǣjugaža
|rowspan=3| huǣjugam
| huǣjugnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| huǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| huǣjgas
| huǣjgas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: filus#Valthungian|filus]]'', ''[[Contionary: mǣžums#Valthungian|mǣžums]]'', ''[[Contionary: mǣst#Valthungian|mǣst]]'', ‘much, many, more, most’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| filus ‘much, many’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mǣžums ‘more’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mǣst ‘most’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| filus
|rowspan=3| filus
|rowspan=2| filitma
| filin
|rowspan=2| mǣžums
|rowspan=2| mǣžumis
|rowspan=2| mǣžumatma
| mǣžumna
|rowspan=2| mǣst
|rowspan=2| mǣstis
|rowspan=2| mǣstatma
| mǣstna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| filo
| filo
| mǣžum
| mǣst
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|colspan=2| filia
|rowspan=3| mǣžuma
| mǣžumažis
|colspan=2| mǣžuma
|rowspan=3| mǣsta
| mǣstažis
|colspan=2| mǣsta
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| filia
|rowspan=3| filiža
|rowspan=3| filim
| filins
|rowspan=3| mǣžuma
|rowspan=3| mǣžumam
| mǣžumnas
|rowspan=3| mǣstaža
|rowspan=3| mǣstam
| mǣstnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| filia
| mǣžuma
| mǣsta
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| filis
| filis
| mǣžumas
| mǣžumas
| mǣstas
| mǣstas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: sams#Valthungian|sams]]'' ‘the same’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sams ‘the same’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sams
|rowspan=2| samis
|rowspan=2| samatma
| samna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| sam
| sam
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| sama
| samažis
|colspan=2| sama
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| samažis
|rowspan=3| samam
| samnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| sama
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| samas
| samas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: sums#Valthungian|sums]]'' ‘some’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sums ‘some’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sums
|rowspan=2| sumis
|rowspan=2| sumatma
| sumna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| sum
| sum
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| suma
| sumažis
|colspan=2| suma
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| sumažis
|rowspan=3| sumam
| sumnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| suma
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| sumas
| sumas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: suǣjus#Valtsungian|suǣjus]]'' ‘so much, so many’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| suǣjus ‘how much, how many’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| suǣjus
|rowspan=2| suǣjugis
|rowspan=2| suǣjugatma
| suǣjugna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| suǣjo
| suǣjo
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| suǣjuga
| suǣjugažis
|colspan=2| suǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| suǣjugaža
|rowspan=3| suǣjugam
| suǣjugnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| suǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| suǣjgas
| suǣjgas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: fǭs#Valthungian|fǭs]]'', ''[[Contionary: mitnums#Valthungian|mitnums]]'', ''[[Contionary: faugist#Valthungian|faugist]]'', ''[[Contionary: mitnist#Valthungian|mitnist]]'', ‘few, little, fewer, less, fewest, least’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| fǭs ‘little, few’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mitnums ‘less, fewer’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=9| faugist, mitnist ‘least, fewest’<ref>[[faugist#Valthungian|faugist]] and [[mitnist#Valthungian|mitnist]] are used interchangeably.</ref>
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| fǭs
|rowspan=2| faugis
|rowspan=2| faugatma
| faugna
| mitnums
|rowspan=2| mitnumis
|rowspan=2| mitnumatma
| mitnumna
|rowspan=2| faugist
|rowspan=2| faugistis
|rowspan=2| faugistatma
| faugistna
|rowspan=2| mitnist
|rowspan=2| mitnistis
|rowspan=2| mitnistatma
| mitnistna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| fǭ
| fǭ
| mitnum
| mitnum
| faugista
| mitnista
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| fauga
| faugažis
|colspan=2| fauga
|rowspan=3| mitnuma
| mitnumažis
|colspan=2| mitnuma
|rowspan=3| faugista
| faugistažis
|colspan=2| faugista
|rowspan=3| mitnista
| mitnistažis
|colspan=2| mitnista
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| faugaža
|rowspan=3| faugam
| faugnas
|rowspan=3| mitnumaža
|rowspan=3| mitnumam
| mitnuma
|rowspan=3| faugistaža
|rowspan=3| faugistam
| faugistnas
|rowspan=3| mitnistaža
|rowspan=3| mistnistam
| mitnistnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| fauga
| mitnuma
| faugista
| mitnista
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| faugas
| faugas
| mitnumas
| mitnumas
| faugistas
| faugistas
| mitnistas
| mitnistas
|-
|}
 
And finally all possessive adjectives ''can'' be used as determiners. (See below.)
 
===Possessives===
All possessives can be used as determiners; when used alone, it is more common to for possessive phrases using a definite article (''sa'' or ''he'') followed by the noun, followed in turn by the possessive declined as a weak adjective. For example, ‘my house’ may be rendered as ''mīn hūs'' or ''þa hūs mīna''. The <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Poss > Noun</span> format is required when the noun is modified by an adjective, e.g. ‘my red house’ is nearly always ''mīn hūs rǭða.''
 
The third person non-reflexive pronouns ''do not decline'', and they may precede or follow the noun without an article, and any adjective that accompanies the noun phrase is declined as strong.
 
The possessives are:
 
====''[[Contionary: mīns#Valthungian| mīns]]'', ''[[Contionary: þīns#Valthungian|þīns]]'', ''[[Contionary: sīns#Valthungian|sīns]]'' ‘my, your, his<ref>This is a 3rd person reflexive possessive, used when the noun is possessed by the subject of the clause.</ref>’====
The singular possessives differ only by the first letter.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mīns ‘my’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| þīns ‘your’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sīns ‘his, her, its (own)’
|-
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=100px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=100px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=100px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| mīns
|rowspan=2| mīnis
|rowspan=2| mīnatma
| mīnan
| þīns
|rowspan=2| þīnis
|rowspan=2| þīnatma
| þīnan
| sīns
|rowspan=2| þīnis
|rowspan=2| sīnatma
| sīnan
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| mīn
| mīn
| þīn
| þīn
| sīn
| sīn
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| mīna
| mīnažis
|colspan=2| mīna
|rowspan=3| þīna
| þīnažis
|colspan=2| þīna
|rowspan=3| sīna
| sīnažis
|colspan=2| sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| mīnaža
|rowspan=3| mīnam
| mīnans
|rowspan=3| þīnaža
|rowspan=3| þīnam
| þīnans
|rowspan=3| sīnaža
|rowspan=3| sīnam
| sīnans
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| mīna
| þīna
| sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| mīnas
| mīnas
| þīnas
| þīnas
| sīnas
| sīnas
|-
! '''''Weak'''''
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sa … mīna
|rowspan=2| þis … mīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … mīnin
| þa … mīnan
| sa … þīna
|rowspan=2| þis … þīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … þīnin
| þa … þīnan
| sa … sīna
|rowspan=2| þis … sīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … sīnin
| þan … sīnan
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| þa … mīna
| þa … mīna
| þa … þīna
| þa … þīna
| þa … sīna
| þa … sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … mīna
| þižis … mīnans
| þiža … mīnan
| þo … mīna
| so … þīna
| þižis … þīnans
| þiža … þīnan
| þo … þīna
| so … sīna
| þižis … sīnans
| þiža … sīnan
| þo … sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| þe … mīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … mīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … mīnam
| þans … mīnans
| þe … þīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … þīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … þīnam
| þans … þīnans
| þe … sīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … sīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … sīnam
| þans … sīnans
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| þo … mīna
| þo … mīna
| þo … þīna
| þo … þīna
| þo … sīna
| þo … sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … mīnans
| þos … mīnans
| þos … þīnans
| þos … þīnans
| þos … sīnans
| þos … sīnans
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: unkra#Valthungian|unkra]]'', ''[[Contionary: unstra#Valthungian|unstra]]'' ‘both of our, all of our’====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| unkra ‘(both of) our’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| unstra ‘(all of) our’
|-
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=5| unkra
|rowspan=2| unkris
|rowspan=2| unkratma
| unkran
|rowspan=5| unstra
|rowspan=2| unstris
|rowspan=2| unstratma
| unstran
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| unkra
|rowspan=2| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| unkražis
| unkra
| unstražis
| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| unkraža
|rowspan=3| unkram
| unkrans
|rowspan=3| unstraža
|rowspan=3| unstram
| unstrans
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| unkra
| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| unkras
| unkras
| unstras
| unstras
|-
! '''''Weak'''''
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sa … unkra
|rowspan=2| þis … unkrins
|rowspan=2| þam … unkrin
| þa … unkran
| sa … unstra
|rowspan=2| þis … unstrins
|rowspan=2| þam … unstrin
| þa … unstran
|-
|-
!gen.  
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| guma || gumins || gumin || gumna ||align="left"| ''one, one’s, &c''
| þa … unkra
| þa … unkra
| þa … unstra
| þa … unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … unkra
| þižis … unkrans
| þiža … unkran
| þo … unkran
| so … unstra
| þižis … unstrans
| þiža … unstran
| þo … unstra
|-
|-
!neg.  
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| nima hun || nimis hun || nimin hun || nimna hun ||align="left"| ''noöne, noöne’s, &c''
| þe … unkrans
|rowspan=3| þiža … unkraro
|rowspan=3| þem … unkram
| þans … unkrans
| þe … unstrans
|rowspan=3| þiža … unstraro
|rowspan=3| þem … unstram
| þans … unstrans
|-
|-
!refl.  
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| - || sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''himself, herself, itself, &c''
| þo … unkra
| þo … unkra
| þo … unstra
| þo … unstra
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … unkrans
| þos … unkrans
| þos … unstrans
| þos … unstrans
|}
|}
<!--
 
===Ditransitive Pronouns===
====''[[Contionary: inkur#Valthungian|inkur]]'', ''[[Contionary: ižur#Valthungian|ižur]]'' ‘both of your, all of your’====
-->
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| inkur ‘(both of) your’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| ižur ‘(all of) your’
|-
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=2| inkur
|rowspan=2| inkuris
|rowspan=2| inkuratma
| inkurna
|rowspan=2| ižur
|rowspan=2| ižuris
|rowspan=2| ižuratma
| ižurna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| inkur
|rowspan=2| ižur
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| inkura
| inkuražis
| inkura
|rowspan=3| ižura
| ižuražis
| ižura
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| inkuraža
|rowspan=3| inkuram
| inkurnas
|rowspan=3| ižuraža
|rowspan=3| ižuram
| ižurnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| inkura
| ižura
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| inkuras
| inkuras
| ižuras
| ižuras
|-
! '''''Weak'''''
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sa … inkura
|rowspan=2| þis … inkurins
|rowspan=2| þam … inkurin
| þa … inkurna
| sa … ižura
|rowspan=2| þis … ižurins
|rowspan=2| þam … ižurin
| þa … ižurna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| þa … inkura
| þa … inkura
| þa … ižura
| þa … ižura
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … inkura
| þižis … inkurans
| þiža … inkuran
| þo … inkuran
| so … ižura
| þižis … ižurans
| þiža … ižuran
| þo … ižuran
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| þe … inkurnas
|rowspan=3| þiža … inkurnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … inkurma
| þans … inkurnas
| þe … ižurnas
|rowspan=3| þiža … ižurnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … ižurma
| þans … ižurnas
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| þo … inkuran
| þo … inkuran
| þo … ižuran
| þo … ižuran
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … inkurans
| þos … inkurans
| þos … ižurans
| þos … ižurans
|}
 
====Indeclinable Possessives====
The following possessives do not decline. When the noun they modify is not accompanied by an adjective, they usually follow the noun; if no adjective is present, they precede the noun, and the adjective takes the strong declension.
* [[Contionary: is#Valthungian|'''''is''''']] ‘his, its’
* [[Contionary: ižis#Valthungian|'''''ižis''''']] ‘her’
* [[Contionary: iža#Valthungian|'''''iža''''']] ‘their’
* [[Contionary: huis#Valthungian|'''''huis''''']] ‘whose’
* [[Contionary: huižis#Valthungian|'''''huižis''''']] ‘whose’
* [[Contionary: nījus#Valthungian|'''''nījus''''']] ‘no one's’
* [[Contionary: huižuþ#Valthungian|'''''huižuþ''''']] ‘everyone's’


==Numbers==
==Numbers==
===Declinable Numerals===
===Declinable Numerals===
====Singular (‘one’)====
====Singular (‘one’)====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
Line 528: Line 1,833:
|-
|-
!fem.  
!fem.  
| ǣna || ǣnažas || ǣna || ǣna  
| ǣna || ǣnažis || ǣna || ǣna  
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Dual (‘two, both’)====
====Dual (‘two, both’)====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive (short)!! !! colspan=4| Distributive (long)
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive
|-
|-
!width=65px|  !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.  
!width=65px|  !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.  
!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4|  
!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4|  
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.  
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.  
!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4|
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
! masc.  
! masc.  
| twǣ ||rowspan=3| twǣǧa ||rowspan=3| twǣm || twans
| tuǣ ||rowspan=3| tuǣǧa ||rowspan=3| tuǣm || tuans
| bǣ ||rowspan=3| bǣǧa ||rowspan=3| bǣm || bans  
| bǣ ||rowspan=3| bǣǧa ||rowspan=3| bǣm || bans  
| bežiþs ||rowspan=3| bežiðaža ||rowspan=3| bežiðum || bežiðans
|-
|-
! neu.  
! neu.  
| twā || twā
| tuā || tuā
| bā || bā  
| bā || bā  
| bežiða || bežiða
|-
|-
! fem.  
! fem.  
| twōs || twōs
| tuōs || tuōs
| bōs || bōs
| bōs || bōs
| bežiþs || bežiþs
|-
|}
|}


====Trial (‘three, all three’) ====
====Trial (‘three, all three’) ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive
Line 570: Line 1,867:
|-
|-
! masc.  
! masc.  
| þrīs ||rowspan=3| þrīja ||rowspan=3| þrim || þrins  
| þrīs ||rowspan=3| þriža ||rowspan=3| þrim || þrins  
| þrǣ ||rowspan=3| þrǣža ||rowspan=3| þrǣm || þrans  
| þrǣ ||rowspan=3| þrǣža ||rowspan=3| þrǣm || þrans  
|-
|-
! neu.  
! neu.  
| þrī || þrī  
| þrī, þriža || þrī, þriža
| þrā || þrā  
| þrā || þrā  
|-
|-
Line 584: Line 1,881:


===Undeclinable Numerals===
===Undeclinable Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
! !!width=100px| # !!width=100px| 1# !!width=100px| 2# ||width=100px| #0 !!width=100px| #00 !!width=100px| #000 !!width=100px| #000
! !!width=100px| # !!width=150px| 1# !!width=100px| 2# ||width=100px| #0 !!width=100px| #00 !!width=100px| #000 !!width=100px| #000
|-
|-
!  0  
!  0  
| (nǣns) || tǣjun, tǣn || twǣtiǧis|| ''-tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''-ljǭn''
| nīþun || tǣjun (tǣn) || tuǣ tiǧis|| ''tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''‑ljǭn''
|-
|-
!  1  
!  1  
| ([[Valthungian#Singular_.28.E2.80.98one.E2.80.99.29|ǣns]]) || ǣnlif || twǣtiǧis ǣns|| ''tǣjun'' || ǣn hund || ǣna þūsunde || miljǭn
| ([[Valthungian#Singular_.28.E2.80.98one.E2.80.99.29|ǣns]]) || ǣndlif || tuǣ tiǧis ǣns|| ''tǣjun'' || ǣn hund || ǣna þūsunde || miljǭn
|-
|-
!  2  
!  2  
| ([[Valthungian#Dual_.28.E2.80.98two.2C_both.E2.80.99.29|twǣ]]) || twalif || twǣtiǧi twǣ|| twǣtiǧis || twā hunda || twōs þūsunǧis || biljǭn
| ([[Valthungian#Dual_.28.E2.80.98two.2C_both.E2.80.99.29|tuǣ]]) || tualif || tuǣ tiǧi tuǣ|| tuǣ tiǧis || tuā hunda || tuōs þūsunǧis || biljǭn
|-
|-
!  3  
!  3  
| ([[Valthungian#Trial_.28.E2.80.98three.2C_all_three.E2.80.99.29|þrīs]]) || þrižatǣn || twǣtiǧi þrīs|| þrīstiǧis || þriža hunda || þrīs þūsunǧis || þriljǭn
| ([[Valthungian#Trial_.28.E2.80.98three.2C_all_three.E2.80.99.29|þrīs]]) || þrigatǣn (þrižatǣn), ig || tuǣ tiǧi þrīs|| þrīs tiǧis || þrī hunda || þrīs þūsunǧis || þriljǭn
|-
|-
!  4  
!  4  
| fiður, fiðra || fiðratǣn || twǣtiǧi fiður|| fiðratiǧis || fiður hunda || fiður þūsunǧis || friljǭn
| fiður (fiðra) || fiðratǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fiður|| fiðra tiǧis || fiður hunda || fiður þūsunǧis || fiðriljǭn
|-
|-
!  5  
!  5  
| fim || fimfatǣn || twǣtiǧi fim|| fimtiǧis || fim hunda || fim þūsunǧis || fimfiljǭn
| fim || fimfatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fim|| fim tiǧis || fim hunda || fim þūsunǧis || fimfiljǭn
|-
|-
!  6  
!  6  
| sǣs || sǣstatǣn || twǣtiǧi sǣs|| sǣstiǧis || sǣs hunda || sǣs þūsunǧis || sǣsiljǭn
| sǣs || sǣstatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sǣs|| sǣs tiǧis || sǣs hunda || sǣs þūsunǧis || sǣsiljǭn
|-
|-
!  7  
!  7  
| sivun, sivna || sivnatǣn || twǣtiǧi sivun|| sivnatiǧis || sivun hunda || sivun þūsunǧis || sivniljǭn
| sivun (sivna) || sivuntǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sivun|| sivun tiǧis || sivun hunda || sivun þūsunǧis || sivniljǭn
|-
|-
!  8  
!  8  
| āta || ātatǣn || twǣtiǧis āta|| ātatiǧis || āta hunda || āta þūsunǧis || ātatiljǭn
| āta (āt) || ātatǣn || tuǣ tiǧis āta|| āta tiǧis || āta hunda || āta þūsunǧis || ātatiljǭn
|-
|-
!  9  
!  9  
| njun || njunatǣn || twǣtiǧi njun|| njuntiǧis || njun hunda || njun þūsunǧis || njuniljǭn
| njun || niðatǣn, iþ || tuǣ tiǧi njun|| njun tiǧis || njun hunda || njun þūsunǧis || njuniljǭn
|-
|-
|}
|}


The numbers in Valthungian – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities.  Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by assimilation from the dual (‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Valthungian.  
The numbers in Valthungian – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities.  Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by analogy with the dual (''bǣ'' ‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Valthungian.  


The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but required in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.)
The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''*fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but standard in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.)


The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers, the former being preferred elsewhere, though still optional.
The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, common in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers.


For compounding numbers, Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – believed to be a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with –tiǧis, a further contraction has become standard, and it is shortened to ''–tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīstiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund’i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund’i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophe in ''-tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''-i-'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn-'' and ''āta''.  
For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with ''tiǧis'', a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to ''tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīs tiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund·i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund·i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in ''tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''‑i‑'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn‑'' and ''āta''.  


Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kwaðriljǭn'', and **''kwintiljǭn''.
Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''.


Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the short scale for higher numbers (whereas most European countries currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:
Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the ''[[wiki:Long_and_short_scale|short scale]]'' for higher numbers (whereas many European languages currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘‑ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
Line 669: Line 1,965:
|}
|}


===Ordinal Numbers===
===Ordinal Numbers and Other Number Forms===
Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English). In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second took only the weak declension, but all ordinals now take both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules of adjectives.


Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English).  
The multiplicative numbers arise from a conflation of the word ''þīfs'' ‘time, occurrence’ with the genitive singular form of the ordinal number, resulting in a robust albeit historically incorrect derivation system. In Griutungi, the concept of multiple occurrences was expressed simply as a number and the accusative of the word ''þīhs'' ‘time, occurrence’: ''ǣn þīhs'' ‘once’, ''tua þīhsa'' ‘twice’, ''þrija þīhsa'' ‘three times’, and so on. Gradually these constructions fused together (Old Valthungian: ''aenþijhs'', ''tvaþijhsa'', ''þrijþijhsa''…) and perhaps based on the more common analogue of ‘twice’, around the time of Early Middle Valthungian they were reanalyzed as a genitive ending affixed to an ordinal (Middle Valthungian: ''ǣnþis'', ''tuaþis'', ''þriþis''…) The forms of the first three multiplicatives aren’t even particularly odd, in terms of language evolution, but that apparent ordinal + genitive construction was then applied analogously to the rest of the numbers, so where we might otherwise expect ''fim þīfs'' ‘five times’ to have become ''fimþis'', instead we find the ordinal form ''fimftis''.


In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second used only the weak declension, but all ordinals now use both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules.
Fractions are formed from the archaic genitive plural form of numbers followed by ''dǣlaro'', literally ‘of ___ parts’, e.g. ¾ = þrīs fiðra dǣlaro = ‘three of four parts’. (This is equivalent to the modern German construction of affixing ''‑tel'' to the end of numbers, e.g. ''drittel'', ''viertel'', ''zehntel'', &c., ''‑tel'' being a direct cognate to ''dǣl''.) The genitive numbers are a holdover from ancient times, and are rarely used outside of the context of fractions; in fact, most fractions are formed by simply adding a suffix of ''‑a'' to the end of a number, without any consideration that it might have once been a genitive.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
! &nbsp; !!colspan=2| Ordinal
!rowspan=2| &nbsp;  
!colspan=3| Ordinal
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| Multiplicative
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| Fractional
|-
! (Strong)
! (Weak)
! &nbsp;
|-
|-
! 1  
! 1  
| frumist (frumista), frums (fruma) || first
| frumist, frums
| frumista, fruma  
| first
| ǣniþis
| once, one time
|colspan=2| --
|-
|-
! 2  
! 2  
| anðra (anðra) || second
|colspan=2| anðra
| second
| tuaþis
| twice, two times
| hlafs, tuǣǧa dǣlaro
| half
|-
|-
! 3  
! 3  
| þrīǧis (þrīǧa) || third  
| þrīǧis  
| þrīǧa
| third
| þriþis
| thrice, three times
| þriža dǣlaro
| third
|-
|-
! 4  
! 4  
| fiðraþs (fiðraða) || fourth  
| fiðraþs  
| fiðraða
| fourth
| fiðurþis
| four times
| fiðra dǣlaro
| quarter/fourth
|-
|-
! 5  
! 5  
| fimft (fimfta) || fifth
| fimft  
| fimfta
| fifth
| fimftis
| five times
| fimfa dǣlaro
| fifth
|-
|-
! 6  
! 6  
| sǣst (sǣsta) || sixth  
| sǣst  
| sǣsta
| sixth
| sǣstis
| six times
| sǣsa dǣlaro
| sixth
|-
|-
! 7  
! 7  
| sivunþs (sivunþa) || seventh  
| sivunþs  
| sivunþa
| seventh
| sivunþis
| seven times
| sivun dǣlaro
| seventh
|-
|-
! 8  
! 8  
| ātuþs (ātuða) || eighth  
| ātuþs  
| ātuða
| eighth
| ātuðis
| eight times
| āta dǣlaro
| eighth
|-
|-
! 9  
! 9  
| njunþs (njunþa) || ninth  
| njunþs  
| njunþa
| ninth
| njunþis
| nine times
| njuna dǣlaro
| ninth
|-
|-
! 10  
! 10  
| tǣjunþs (tǣjunþa), tǣnþs (tǣnþa) || tenth  
| tǣjunþs  
| tǣjunþa
| tenth
| tǣjunþis
| ten times
| tǣjun dǣlaro
| tenth
|-
|-
! 11  
! 11  
| ǣnlift (ǣnlifta) || eleventh  
| ǣndlift
| ǣndlifta
| eleventh
| ǣndliftis
| eleven times
| ǣndliva dǣlaro
| eleventh
|-
|-
! 12  
! 12  
| twālift (twālifta) || twelfth  
| tuālift
| tuālifta
| twelfth
| tuāliftis
| twelve times
| tuāliva dǣlaro
| twelfth
|-
|-
! 13  
! 13  
| þrižatǣnþs (þrižatǣnþa) || thirteenth  
| þrigatǣnþs
| þrigatǣnþa
| thirteenth
| þrigatǣnþis
| thirteen times
| þrigatǣjun dǣlaro
| thirteenth
|-
|-
! 20  
! 20  
| twǣtiǧist (twǣtiǧista) || twentieth  
| tuǣ tiǧist
| tuǣ tiǧista
| twentieth
| tuǣ tiǧistis
| twenty times
| tuǣtiǧa dǣlaro
| twentieth
|-
|-
! 100  
! 100  
| hundaþs (hundaða) || hundredth  
| hundaþs  
| hundaða
| hundredth
| hundaðis
| a hundred times
| hunda dǣlaro
| hundredth
|-
|-
! 1,000  
! 1,000  
| þūsundiþs (þūsundiða) || thousandth  
| þūsundiþs  
| þūsundiða
| thousandth
| þūsundiðis
| a thousand times
| þūsunǧa dǣlaro
| thousandth
|-
|-
! 1,000,000  
! 1,000,000  
| miljǭnþs (miljǭnþa) || millionth  
| miljǭnþs  
| miljǭnþa  
| millionth
| miljǭnþis
| a million times
| miljǭna dǣlaro
| millionth
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Alternative Numbers===
===Alternative Numbers===
The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system (in turn modeled after the Hebrew), which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages ([[Middle Valthungian]]), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form.  Primary among these numbers were ‘13’ and ‘19’, which were written in Gothic as ''·ig·'' and ''·iþ·'', respectively.  This also occurred with the numbers ‘113’ (''rig''), ‘119’ (''riþ''), ‘213’ (''sig''), ‘219’ (''siþ''), ‘313’ (''tig''), ‘319’ (''tiþ''), ‘413’ (''wig''), ‘419’ (''wiþ''), ‘513’ (''fig''), and ‘519’ (''fiþ''). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)


The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages (Middle Valthungian), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. Primarily among these numbers was '13', which was written in Gothic as ''·ig·''.  This also occurred with the numbers '113' (''rig''), '213' (''sig''), '313' (''tig''), '413' (''wig''), and '513' (''fig'').  (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)
Though this seems like a modern form of word-play, it is actually quite ancient. The rendering of ‘19’ as ''iþ'' exerted enough influence on the numeric form from early days that the modern form became ''niðatǣn'' rather than the expected **''njunatǣn''. Similarly, the standard form of ‘13’ is ''þrigatǣn'', though the expected ''þrižatǣn'' is still an accepted alternative.


The number '19' is also sometimes called ''iþ'' by the same formulation.
Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, the homophony of hortative particle ''iþ'' with the number ''19'' gives rise to a nominal form ''þat niðatǣn'' referring to a duty or obligation. Similarly, a ‘road’ or ‘highway’ is sometimes referred to as a ‘413’ (''fiður-ig''), written ''wig'' (the accusative of ''wiǧ'' (‘road’).


Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, a 'road' or 'highway' is sometimes referred to as a '413' (''fiður hunda þrižatǣn'' or ''fiður-þrižatǣn''), written ''wig'' (the accusative singular of ''wiǧ'' ('road').
A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number ‘843’ to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''.


A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number '843' to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''.
==A Note on Terminology: “Strong” vs. “Weak”==
In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.”
In verbs, these denote two of the many categories into which verbs may be broken, “strong” verbs being those that form the preterit by means of ablaut, and “weak” being those that form the preterit with a suffix containing some manner of dental consonant. There are further classifications of preterit-present, aorist-present, subjunctive-present, and anomalous, and many of them overlap with the simplistic “strong” and “weak” descriptors. (See [[#Verbs|Verbs]] for more information.)


==Articles & Determiners==
This usage is completely unrelated to strong and weak nouns and adjectives, in which “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending.


Valthungian has two definite articles, ''sā'' and ''his'', both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘that’ and ‘this’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, ''sā'' is usually preferred.
And even though the meaning of strong and weak in nouns and adjectives are historically related, their usage is not: In nouns, like the verbs, this is merely a convenient way of categorising certain types of nouns which take certain endings. In adjectives, however, the use of a strong or weak adjective depends on whether other determiners are present in the same noun phrase; most adjectives have both a strong and a weak declension.


There is no indefinite article in Valthungian.
For the purposes of this text, I dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various stem classes into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Valthungian language to add this additional arbitrary distinction. I maintain the use of the terms for verbs and adjectives, though, to be honest, their usage with verbs could easily be similarly eschewed; the only area  where these distinctions are really functionally important is in the discussion of adjectives.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
!width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=7| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
|-
!masc.sg
| sā ||rowspan=2|  þis ||rowspan=2| þatma || þan
|his ||rowspan=2| his ||rowspan=2| hitma || hin
|-
!neu.sg 
| þat || þat
| hit || hit
|-
!fem.sg 
| sō || þižas || þiža || þō
| hiža || hižas || hiža || hī, hiža
|-
!masc.pl
| þǣ ||rowspan=3| þiža ||rowspan=3|  þǣm || þans
| hīs ||rowspan=3| hiža ||rowspan=3| him || hins
|-
!neu.pl 
| þō || þō
| hī, hiža || hī, hiža
|-
!fem.pl 
| þōs || þōs
| hižas || hižas
|-
|}


==Nouns==
==Nouns==
Main article: [[Valthungian/Nouns]]


Noun classes differ by suffix vowel class and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described below: See A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns). There is also a very small class in /r/ having to do with familial relations. Some former noun classes in Gothic (such as consontant-stem and nd-stem nouns) have been regularized in Valthungian through paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated into other classes.
Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).


Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).  
Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of ‑s or ‑a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by ‑is (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes ‑a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.


Masculine and feminine strong nouns usually take an ending of –s for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “ ’s ” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.
In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take ‑as as an ending; neuter takes ‑a. The genitive plural takes ‑aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes ‑am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it ‑ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually ‑ans, but again may metathesise to ‑nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take ‑a.


In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural takes –aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually –ans, but again may metathesize to –nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take –a.
Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See [[#Phonology|Phonology]]). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.


Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardized, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See Phonology). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.
Details about the inflections of individual noun classes and their variants can be found here: [[Valthungian/Nouns]]


===A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns===
==Verbs==
===Inversion===
A peculiar feature about Valthungian verbs is that every finite verb has a “Standard” and “Inverted” form. This arose historically because of the increasing strictness of the V2 environment, causing shifts in voicing and sandhi between the verb and subject pronoun. Inverted pronouns are generally appended to the inverted verb (with no apostrophes!), and the plural pronouns have particularly different forms which may merge some pronouns (the third person plural forms, for example, are all identical).


In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.” In nouns and adjectives, “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending. For the purposes of this text, I will dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various categories into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Valthungian language to add this additional arbitrary distinction.
===Strong Verbs===
 
Strong verbs are those verbs in Germanic which form the preterit and past participles through a process of ablaut; that is, by changing the stressed vowel. This is analogous to those verbs in English such as ''drive – drove – driven'' (class I), or ''drink – drank – drunk'' (class III). These are traditionally divided into four “Principal Parts”: The first is the base of the infinitive, present participle, present indicative and subjunctive tenses, and the imperatives. The second principal part is used to form the preterit singular. The third is the preterit plural and all of the subjunctive. (This is usually umlauted in the subjunctive.) Finally the fourth principal part is the root of the past participle.
===a-Stems (Masculine & Neuter)===
 
====Pure a-Stems====
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.a|slēp|slēp|sleep}}
 
====ja-Stems====
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.ja|tep|tap|carpet}}
 
====ija-Stems====
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.ija|end|enǧ|and|end}}
 
====wa-Stems====
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.wa|skað|skað|shadow}}
 
====wja-Stems====
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.wja|nǭ|naug|neug|corpse}}
 
===ō-Stems (Feminine)===
 
====Pure ō-Stems====
 
====jō-Stems====
 
====ijō-Stems====
 
====wō-Stems====
 
===i-Stems (Masculine & Feminine)===
 
====Pure i-Stems====
 
====wi-Stem====


===u-stems (all genders)===
====Pure u-Stems====
====ju-Stem====
===r-Stem (Masculine & Feminine)===
===ōn-Stem (all genders)===
====Pure ōn-Stem====
====jōn-Stem====
====wōn-Stem====
====wjōn-Stem====
==Verbs==
===Strong Verbs===
====Strong Verbs: Class I (ī – ǣ – i – i)====
====Strong Verbs: Class I (ī – ǣ – i – i)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.1p|grī|grǣ|gri}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.1p|seize|grī|grǣ|gri|gri|gri}}


====Strong Verbs: Class II (ju – ǭ – u – u)====
====Strong Verbs: Class II (ju – ǭ – u – u)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2p|strju|strǭ|stru|stry}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2p|strju|strǭ|stru|stry}}


Because of the shift of the vowel from '''iu''' to '''ju''', when a class II verb begins with a consonant that is subject to palatalization, some unusual patterns may emerge as a result.
Because of the shift of the vowel from '''iu''' to '''ju''', when a class II verb begins with a consonant that is subject to palatalisation, some unusual patterns may emerge as a result.
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun|}}


Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *-euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III.
Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *‑euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III.
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w|bl}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w|bl}}


Line 870: Line 2,199:


====Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)====
====Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4m|kwi|kwa|kwē|kū}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4m|kui|kua|kuē|kū}}


In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
Line 878: Line 2,207:
====Strong Verbs: Class V (i – a – ē – i)====
====Strong Verbs: Class V (i – a – ē – i)====


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5þ|kwi|kwa|kwē|kwi}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5þ|kui|kua|kuē|kui}}


====Strong Verbs: Class VI (a – ō – ō – a)====
====Strong Verbs: Class VI (a – ō – ō – a)====
Line 886: Line 2,215:
====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)====
====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}}
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by ‹e›, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br />
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by ⟨e⟩, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br />
Verbs beginning with ‹s› followed by a stop (i.e. ‹sp›, ‹st›, or ‹sk›), the first two letters are repeated.<br />
Verbs beginning with ⟨s⟩ followed by a stop (i.e. ⟨sp⟩, ⟨st⟩, or ⟨sk⟩), the first two letters are repeated.<br />
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>-->
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>-->


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}}
<!--<small>Verbs with ‹ē› as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to ‹ō› in the past (and subsequently umlaut to ‹œ̄› in the past subjunctive).</small>-->
<!--<small>Verbs with ⟨ē⟩ as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to ⟨ō⟩ in the past (and subsequently umlaut to ⟨œ̄⟩ in the past subjunctive).</small>-->


===Weak Verbs===
===Weak Verbs===
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (-janą)====
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (‑janą)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}}


====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (-ijaną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (‑ijaną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}}


====Weak Verbs: Class II (-ōną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class II (‑ōną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}}


====Weak Verbs: Class III (-āną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class III (‑āną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}}


====Weak Verbs: Class IV (-naną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class IV (‑naną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class V (-ną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class V (‑ną)====


===Preterit-Present Verbs===
===Preterit-Present Verbs===


{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ǣgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ǣgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dorsna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dorsna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.kutnan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.kutnan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.lisna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.lisna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.magna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.magna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.mōtna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.mōtna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.munan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.munan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.nugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.nugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ōgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ōgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.skulna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.skulna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.witna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.witna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.þorvan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.þorvan|}}


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===Anomalous Verbs===
===Anomalous Verbs===
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorized as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/-reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/‑reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}}


The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ-'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj-'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''.
The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ‑'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj‑'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''.


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}}
Line 954: Line 2,271:
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}}


''Wisna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''wis-'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i-'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i-'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’).
''Wisna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''wis‑'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i‑'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i‑'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’).


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}}
Line 960: Line 2,277:
===Compound Tenses===
===Compound Tenses===
====Forming the Perfect====
====Forming the Perfect====
In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga‑'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.


In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga-'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.
In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme.
 
In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realization of the two types is much more extreme.


Intransitive verbs are formed in the Romance style by creating a compound of the verb ''[[Contionary: wisna#Valthungian|wisna]]'' and the past participle. (The participle is an adjective, and must be declined to agree with the subject.)
Intransitive verbs are formed in the Romance style by creating a compound of the verb ''[[Contionary: wisna#Valthungian|wisna]]'' and the past participle.
*''S·'''īst''' lēkare '''worðna'''.''
*''S·'''īst''' lēkare '''vroðna'''.''
**‘She has become a doctor.’
**‘She has become a doctor.’
*''Is '''was''' hǣma '''gangnas'''.''
*''Is '''was''' hǣma '''gangna'''.''
**‘He had gone home.’
**‘He had gone home.’


Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga-'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalized and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.
Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga‑'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.''
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.''
**‘She had given it to him.’
**‘She had given it to him.’
*''Ik þik '''sǣja gā'''.''
*''Ik þik '''sǣjua gā'''.''
**‘I have seen you.’
**‘I have seen you.’


====Forming the Future====
====Forming the Future====
The future is formed by using the auxiliary ''genǧin'' ‘to go’ followed by an infinitive (not unlike future compound constructions with ''go'' in multiple European languages).
The future is formed by using the auxiliary ''genǧin'' ‘to go’ followed by an infinitive (not unlike future compound constructions with ''go'' in multiple European languages).
*''Ik '''genǧa''' þō hord '''lūkna'''.''
*''Ik '''genǧa''' þo hroþ '''lūkna'''.''
**‘I '''will lock''' the door.’
**‘I '''will lock''' the door.’
*''Ik nī '''gangiða''' nījo þō livran af hǣða hun '''ligna'''.''
*''Ik ni '''gangiða''' nījo '''ligna''' þo livran af hǣða hun.''
**‘I was never '''going to read''' that book anyway.’
**‘I was never '''going to read''' that book anyway.’


====Forming the Passive====
====Forming the Passive====
Gothic transitive verbs had a passive form, but this has disappeared from Valthungian. Instead, the passive may be formed using a variety of auxiliary verbs determined by the volition of the agent and the subject (patient). By their very nature, passives need not specify an agent, but an agent can be indicated using the genitive (as we would use ‘by’ in English).
Gothic transitive verbs had a passive form, but this has disappeared from Valthungian. Instead, the passive may be formed using a variety of auxiliary verbs determined by the volition of the agent and the subject (patient). By their very nature, passives need not specify an agent, but an agent can be indicated using the genitive (as we would use ‘by’ in English).


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! Agent:<br />Deliberate
! Agent:<br />Deliberate
|| ''gečin'' ‘to cause to get’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’
|| ''gečin'' ‘to cause to get’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’
|| ''gitna'' ‘to get’<br />''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’
|| ''gitna'' ‘to get’<ref>The present tense of ''gitna'' is often reduced, particularly in the third person, when used as a passive auxiliary; i.e. ''gitiþ'' → ''giþ'', ''gitnaþ'' → ''ginþ''. </ref><br />''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’
|-
|-
! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
|| ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br />&nbsp;
|| ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br />&nbsp;
|| ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''skeǧin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''werðan'' ‘to become’
|| ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''skǣšin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''vreðna'' ‘to become’
|}
|}
'''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement
'''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement
*''Ik '''gatiða''' forðat work '''fergilðiþs'''.''
*''Ik '''gatiða''' forða vork '''fraglíðiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was paid''' for the work.’
**‘I '''was paid''' for the work.’
*Þǣ ankýmbiðas '''langiðun''' þis borðaþjugis '''ganōguða'''.
*Þǣ ankýmbiðas '''langiðun''' þis broðaþjugis '''ganōguþ'''.
**‘The diners '''were served''' by the waiter.’
**‘The diners '''were served''' by the waiter.’


'''Agent Deliberate / Patient Unintentional''': These auxiliaries are used mainly when the agent is a person and the patient is either an object or a person who is unaware of the agent’s intention or an unwilling participant in the action.
'''Agent Deliberate / Patient Unintentional''': These auxiliaries are used mainly when the agent is a person and the patient is either an object or a person who is unaware of the agent’s intention or an unwilling participant in the action.
*''Ik '''gat''' þis weris '''slaguns'''.''
*''Ik '''gat''' þis weris '''slagun'''.''
**‘I '''was hit''' by the man.’
**‘I '''was hit''' by the man.’
*''Sā wagnas '''þagiða''' þiža mœuǧis '''fariþs'''.''
*''S·wagnas '''þagiða''' þiža mœuǧis '''fariþ'''.''
**‘The car '''was driven''' by the girl.’
**‘The car '''was driven''' by the girl.’


'''Agent Unintentional / Patient Deliberate''': This usually refers to agents (usually inanimate) that are being used by a patient for a specific purpose.
'''Agent Unintentional / Patient Deliberate''': This usually refers to agents (usually inanimate) that are being used by a patient for a specific purpose.
*''Ik '''þagiða''' þižas fœ̄ðinis '''nutriškiþs'''.''
*''Ik '''þagiða''' þižis fœ̄ðinis '''nutriškiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was nourished''' by the food.’
**‘I '''was nourished''' by the food.’
*''Þū '''langiðas''' (þiža intǣkninis) toðíža miðéndina '''tuguns'''.''
*''Þū '''langiðas''' (þiž·intǣkninis) toðiža miðéndina '''tugun'''.''
**‘You '''were led''' to that conclusion (by the evidence).’
**‘You '''were led''' to that conclusion (by the evidence).’


'''Agent/Patient Unintentional or Inanimate''': This final group is possibly the most common, and refers to inanimate agent and patient, or when the agent or patient is an unwilling participant in the action. It may refer especially to natural phenomena, e.g. ‘blown down by wind’ or ‘rained on’.
'''Agent/Patient Unintentional or Inanimate''': This final group is possibly the most common, and refers to inanimate agent and patient, or when the agent or patient is an unwilling participant in the action. It may refer especially to natural phenomena, e.g. ‘blown down by wind’ or ‘rained on’.
*''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþs'''.''
*''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’
**‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’
*''Þǣ lǭvas '''skagiðun''' þižas rynins '''afbórna'''.''
*''Þe lǭvas '''skāguðun''' þižis rynins '''avbrón'''.''
**‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’
**‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’


====Immediacy: Forming the Recent Past and Immediate Future====
====Immediacy: Forming the Recent Past and Immediate Future====
The adverb ''straks'' can be used in conjunction with most tenses as an “immediacy particle.” In the past tenses, this translates roughly to the word ‘just’, as in “I just did that.” In the future, it is most closely translated as ‘about to’.  
The adverb ''straks'' can be used in conjunction with most tenses as an “immediacy particle.” In the past tenses, this translates roughly to the word ‘just’, as in “I just did that.” In the future, it is most closely translated as ‘about to’.  
*''Ik '''straks''' āt gā.''
*''Ik '''straks''' āt gā.''
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''NB: ''Straks'' is definitely a Germanic word, but cannot be descended from East Germanic. (If it were, we might expect ''strakis'' or perhaps ''straka''.) It is likely a more recent borrowing into Middle Valthungian from a West or North Germanic source. Cf. Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish ''straks'', Swedish and Icelandic ''strax'', German ''stracks'', &c.''
''NB: ''Straks'' is definitely a Germanic word, but cannot be descended from East Germanic. (If it were, we might expect ''strakis'' or perhaps ''straka''.) It is likely a more recent borrowing into Middle Valthungian from a West or North Germanic source. Cf. Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish ''straks'', Swedish and Icelandic ''strax'', German ''stracks'', &c.''
====Forming the Progressive====
The progressive tenses are not used often in Valthungian, but they can be a useful way to indicate that something is left unfinished, since the Perfect – originally a perfective indicating completed action – has taken on more of a perfect meaning, including that of a more generalised past tense.
The progressive is formed using the auxiliary verb ''sitna'' ‘to sit’ and the preposition ''bī'' ‘by’, followed by the infinitive. (In very formal language, you may encounter ''sitna bi'' followed by the dative of the nominalized form of the verb, e.g. ‘I am drawing’ may be rendered as ''Ik sita bi vrǣtina'' rather than the expected ''Ik sita bi vrǣčin''.
*''Ū '''sitistu''' njužis '''bi drinkna''' gā?''
**‘Have you '''been drinking''' again?’
*''Ik '''sita bi skrīvna''' þo bisāt mīna. Raniso '''sitik bi drinkna''' gā.''
**‘'''I’m writing''' my dissertation. Of course I’ve '''been drinking'''.’


==Adjectives==
==Adjectives==
In Valthungian, adjectives can be strong or weak (as with adjectives in any Germanic language that declines). The general rule is: If a nouns takes a [[#Determiners|determiner]] (article, possessive<ref>Only when a possessive is used without an article; otherwise the possessive itself is also declined as weak.</ref>, quantifier, &c), its accompanying adjective is weak; otherwise it is strong.
Predicative adjectives do not decline; they usually take the form of the strong neuter singular regardless of what they modify.
Legend: <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">Predicative</span> · <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">Strong</span> · <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">Weak</span> · <span style="background-color:#99FF99;">Determiner</span> · <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">Non-declining Genitive</span>
When a noun is modified by an adjective alone (with no determiner present), the adjective takes the strong declension.
*''ražna <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">rǭðat</span>'' ‘a red house’
*''miðus <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">glitnaþs</span>'' ‘sparkling mead’
*''vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘forbidden knowledge’
When paired with a third person possessive (is, ižis, or iža), an adjective also takes the strong declension:
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">is</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">rǭðat</span>'' ‘his red house’
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">ižis</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">glitnaþs</span>'' ‘her sparkling mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">iža</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘their forbidden knowledge’
When one of the above possessives is used without an adjective, they follow the noun.
*''ražna <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">is</span> ‘his house’
*''miðus <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">ižis</span> ‘her mead’
*''vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">iža</span> ‘their knowledge’
When a determiner is present, the adjective takes a weak declension.
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">hreužitaþ</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">rǭða</span>'' ‘every red house’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">mīns</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">glitnaða</span>'' ‘my sparkling mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘the forbidden knowledge’
When a possessive is used with an adjective (as in ''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">mīns</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">glitnaða</span>'', above), the possessive precedes the noun and takes a strong declension while the adjective takes the weak; however, when no adjective is present, a definite article precedes the noun, and the weak-declined possessive follows it.
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">þa</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">mīna</span>'' ‘my house’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">sa</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">þīna</span>'' ‘your mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">unstra</span>'' ‘our knowledge’
When an adjective is used as a predicate, it takes the predicative form (not really a declension, because there is only one).
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">þa</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">mīna</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">rǭþ</span>.''  ‘my house is red’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">sa</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">þīna</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">glitnaþ</span>.'' ‘your mead is sparkling’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">unstra</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">frobúðna</span>.'' ‘our knowledge is forbidden’
===Comparison===
To form the comparative, most adjectives replace the usual endings with ''‑ums'' (which declines as an a‑stem), though after i‑ and j‑stems, it becomes ''‑ims''. E.g.:
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilums''''' ‘bigger’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunims''''' ‘greener’
* '''''aglus''''' ‘difficult’ → '''''aglums''''' ‘more difficult’
The dative case is used to form comparative clauses by replacing the English preposition ''than'':
* ''Is ist þam brōðra sīnin hǭðum.'' ‘He is taller than his brother.’ (Literally: “He is to‑the brother of‑himself taller.”)
To form the superlative, most adjectives add ''‑ist'' to the stem.
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilist''''' ‘biggest’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunist''''' ‘greenest’
* '''''aglus''''' ‘difficult’ → '''''eglist''''' ‘most difficult’
The genitive case is used to form superlative clauses. The comparative itself is usually accompanied by a definite article:
* ''Is ist þiža brœuðro sīnaro sa hǭðist.'' ‘He is the tallest of his brothers.’ (Literally: “He is of‑the brothers of‑himself the tallest.”)
===Adverbialization===
Historically, adverbs are formed from adjectives in a variety of ways. The most common, however, is to add the suffix '''''‑so''''' (often written as '''''‑sua''''' in older texts) after the stem vowel.
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilaso''''' ‘largely’
* '''''synikus''''' ‘honest’ → '''''synikuso''''' ‘honestly’
* '''''mǣst''''' ‘most’ → '''''mǣstaso''''' ‘mostly’
===Irregular and Suppletive Forms===
There are a number of irregular and suppletive forms of adjectives.
{| class="wikitable"
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
! Adverbial
|-
| '''''tils~þjuþs''''' ‘good’
| '''''batums''''' ‘better’
| '''''batist''''' ‘best’
| '''''tila''''' ‘well’
|-
| '''''līts'''''~'''''lītils'''''~'''''lītlas''''' ‘little, small’
| '''''mitnums''''' ‘smaller’
| '''''mitnist''''' ‘smallest’
| —
|-
| '''''uvils~balus''''' ‘bad’
| '''''vresums''''' ‘worse’
| '''''vresist''''' ‘worst’
| '''''balo''''' ‘badly, poorly’
|-
| '''''fǭs''''' ‘little, few’
| '''''mitnums''''' ‘less, fewer’
| '''''mitnist'''''~'''''faugist''''' ‘least, fewest’
| —
|-
| '''''filus''''' ‘much, many’
| '''''mǣžums''''' ‘more’
| '''''mǣst''''' ‘most’
| '''''mǣstaso''''' ‘mostly’
|}
==Vocabulary==
'''[[:Category: Valthungian words|Valthungian Words on Contionary]]'''
===Swadesh List===
''For those of you who like this sort of thing!''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! &nbsp;
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
|-
! 001
| '''[[Contionary: ik#Valthungian|ik]]'''
| I
! 070
| '''[[Contionary: fiðra#Valthungian|fiðra]]''' (''n'')
| feather
! 139
| '''[[Contionary: reþin#Valthungian|reþin]]'''
| to count
|-
! 002
| '''[[Contionary: þū#Valthungian|þū]]'''
| you
! 071
| '''[[Contionary: hēr#Valthungian|hēr]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: þlāta#Valthungian|þlāta]]'''  (''f''), '''[[Contionary: skuft#Valthungian|skuft]]''' (''n'')
| hair (''on head'')
! 140
| '''[[Contionary: kwiðna#Valthungian|kuiðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: rœuǧin#Valthungian|rœuǧin]]'''
| to say
|-
! 003
| '''[[Contionary: is#Valthungian|is]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: sī#Valthungian|sī]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: it#Valthungian|it]]''' (''n'')
| he, she, it
! 072
| '''[[Contionary: hǭviþ#Valthungian|hǭviþ]]''' (''n'')
| head
! 141
| '''[[Contionary: singun#Valthungian|singun]]''',  '''[[Contionary: hežin#Valthungian|hežin]]'''
| to sing
|-
! 004
| '''[[Contionary: wit#Valthungian|vit]]''' (''du''), '''[[Contionary: wīs#Valthungian|vīs]]''' (''pl'')
| we
! 073
| '''[[Contionary: hǭsa#Valthungian|hǭsa]]''' (''n'')
| ear
! 142
| '''[[Contionary: lǣkna#Valthungian|lǣkna]]'''
| to play
|-
! 005
| '''[[Contionary: ǧut#Valthungian|ǧut]]''' (''du''), '''[[Contionary: jūs#Valthungian|jūs]]''' (''pl'')
| you
! 074
| '''[[Contionary: ǭga#Valthungian|ǭga]]''' (''n'')
| eye
! 143
| '''[[Contionary: þljutna#Valthungian|þljutna]]'''
| to float
|-
! 006
| '''[[Contionary: īs#Valthungian|īs]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ižas#Valthungian|ižas]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: iža#Valthungian|iža]]''' (''n'')
| they
! 075
| '''[[Contionary: nasa#Valthungian|nasa]]''' (''n'')
| nose
! 144
| '''[[Contionary: ǧusna#Valthungian|ǧusna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: þreǧin#Valthungian|þreǧin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: ritnan#Valthungian|ritnan]]'''
| to flow
|-
! 007
| '''[[Contionary: his#Valthungian|his]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: hiža#Valthungian|hiža]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: hī#Valthungian|hī]]''' (''n'')
| this
! 076
| '''[[Contionary: munþs#Valthungian|munþs]]''' (''m'')
| mouth
! 145
| '''[[Contionary: frjusna#Valthungian|frjusna]]'''
| to freeze
|-
! 008
| '''[[Contionary: sā#Valthungian|sā]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: sō#Valthungian|sō]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: þat#Valthungian|þat]]''' (''n'')
| that
! 077
| '''[[Contionary: tanþus#Valthungian|tanþus]]''' (''m'')
| tooth
! 146
| '''[[Contionary: ljuðna#Valthungian|ljuðna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: wǣšin#Valthungian|vǣšin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: bligna#Valthungian|bligna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: suitlan#Valthungian|suitlan]]'''
| to swell
|-
! 009
| '''[[Contionary: hēr#Valthungian|hēr]]'''
| here
! 078
| '''[[Contionary: tunga#Valthungian|tunga]]''' (''f'')
| tongue
! 147
| '''[[Contionary: sōgila#Valthungian|sōgila]]''' (''f'')
| sun
|-
! 010
| '''[[Contionary: þar#Valthungian|þar]]'''
| there
! 079
| '''[[Contionary: nagla#Valthungian|nagla]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: klauga#Valthungian|klauga]]''' (''f'')
| fingernail
! 148
| '''[[Contionary: mēna#Valthungian|mēna]]''' (''m'')
| moon
|-
! 011
| '''[[Contionary: hwas#Valthungian|huas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hwōs#Valthungian|huōs]]''' (''f'')
| who
! 080
| '''[[Contionary: fōts#Valthungian|fōts]]''' (''f'')
| foot
! 149
| '''[[Contionary: strena#Valthungian|strena]]''' (''f'')
| star
|-
! 012
| '''[[Contionary: hwat#Valthungian|huat]]''' (''n'')
| what
! 081
| '''[[Contionary: anke#Valthungian|anke]]''' (''f'')
| leg
! 150
| '''[[Contionary: watra#Valthungian|vatra]]''' (''n'')
| water
|-
! 013
| '''[[Contionary: hwar#Valthungian|huar]]''' (''int''), '''[[Contionary: hweri#Valthungian|hueri]]''' (''rel'')
| where
! 082
| '''[[Contionary: knio#Valthungian|knio]]''' (''n'')
| knee
! 151
| '''[[Contionary: rigna#Valthungian|rigna]]''' (''n'')
| rain
|-
! 014
| '''[[Contionary: hwan#Valthungian|huan]]''' (''int''), '''[[Contionary: þeni#Valthungian|þeni ]]''' (''rel'')
| when
! 083
| '''[[Contionary: handus#Valthungian|handus]]''' (''f'')
| hand
! 152
| '''[[Contionary: þlōðus#Valthungian|þlōðus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: flūma#Valthungian|flūma]]''' (''f'')
| river
|-
! 015
| '''[[Contionary: hwē#Valthungian|huē]]'''
| how
! 084
| '''[[Contionary: þljuðre#Valthungian|þljuðre]]''' (''n'')
| wing
! 153
| '''[[Contionary: lagus#Valthungian|lagus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: mare#Valthungian|mare]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: marisǣjus#Valthungian|marisǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| lake
|-
! 016
| '''[[Contionary: ni#Valthungian|ni]]'''
| not
! 085
| '''[[Contionary: wamba#Valthungian|vamba]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: būks#Valthungian|būks]]''' (''m'')
| belly, abdomen
! 154
| '''[[Contionary: sǣjus#Valthungian|sǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| sea
|-
! 017
| '''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'''
| all
! 086
| '''[[Contionary: hreðra#Valthungian|hreðra]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: instra#Valthungian|instra]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: þrams#Valthungian|þrams]]''' (''m'')
| guts, entrails
! 155
| '''[[Contionary: slat*#Valthungian|slat*]]''' (''n'')
| salt
|-
! 018
| '''[[Contionary: filus#Valthungian|filus]]'''
| many
! 087
| '''[[Contionary: hlas#Valthungian|hlas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: þnāka#Valthungian|þnāka]]''' (''m'')
| neck
! 156
| '''[[Contionary: stǣns#Valthungian|stǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hadlus#Valthungian|hadlus]]''' (''m'')
| stone
|-
! 019
| '''[[Contionary: sums#Valthungian|sums]]'''
| some
! 088
| '''[[Contionary: þryǧis#Valthungian|þryǧis]]''' (''m'')
| back
! 157
| '''[[Contionary: blama#Valthungian|blama]]''' (''m'')
| sand
|-
! 020
| '''[[Contionary: fǭs#Valthungian|fǭs]]'''
| few
! 089
| '''[[Contionary: bōsmas#Valthungian|bōsmas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: tīča#Valthungian|tīča]]''' (''f'')
| breast
! 158
| '''[[Contionary: pulus#Valthungian|pulus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: stybis#Valthungian|stybis]]''' (''m'')
| dust
|-
! 021
| '''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|elis]]'''
| other
! 090
| '''[[Contionary: hreta#Valthungian|hreta]]''' (''n'')
| heart
! 159
| '''[[Contionary: reða#Valthungian|reða]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: bluða#Valthungian|bluða]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: sœ̄lia#Valthungian|sœ̄lia]]''' (''f'')
| earth, soil, dirt
|-
! 022
| '''[[Contionary: ǣns#Valthungian|ǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ǣna#Valthungian|ǣna]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: ǣn#Valthungian|ǣn]]''' (''n'')
| one
! 091
| '''[[Contionary: ǧikur#Valthungian|ǧikur]]''' (''n'')
| liver
! 160
| '''[[Contionary: blīma#Valthungian|blīma]]''' (''m'')
| cloud
|-
! 023
| '''[[Contionary: twǣ#Valthungian|tuǣ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: twōs#Valthungian|tuōs]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: twā#Valthungian|tuā]]''' (''n'')
| two
! 092
| '''[[Contionary: drinkna#Valthungian|drinkna]]'''
| to drink
! 161
| '''[[Contionary: nivula#Valthungian|nivula]]''' (''f'')
| fog, mist
|-
! 024
| '''[[Contionary: þrīs#Valthungian|þrīs]]''' (''m, f''), '''[[Contionary: þriža#Valthungian|þriža]]''' (''n'')
| three
! 093
| '''[[Contionary: itna#Valthungian|itna]]'''
| to eat
! 162
| '''[[Contionary: himins#Valthungian|himins]]''' (''m'')
| sky
|-
! 025
| '''[[Contionary: fiður#Valthungian|fiður]]'''
| four
! 094
| '''[[Contionary: bītna#Valthungian|bītna]]'''
| to bite
! 163
| '''[[Contionary: winǧ#Valthungian|vinǧ]]''' (''m'')
| wind
|-
! 026
| '''[[Contionary: fim#Valthungian|fim]]'''
| five
! 095
| '''[[Contionary: sūgna#Valthungian|sūgna]]'''
| to suck
! 164
| '''[[Contionary: snǣjus#Valthungian|snǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| snow
|-
! 027
| '''[[Contionary: grǭts#Valthungian|grǭts]]''', '''[[Contionary: lǭþs#Valthungian|lǭþs]]'''
| big, large
! 096
| '''[[Contionary: spījugna#Valthungian|spījugna]]'''
| to spit
! 165
| '''[[Contionary: īs#Valthungian|īs]]''' (''n'')
| ice
|-
! 028
| '''[[Contionary: lengis#Valthungian|lengis]]'''
| long
! 097
| '''[[Contionary: ǧukurépna#Valthungian|ǧukurépna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kesčin#Valthungian|kesčin]]'''
| to vomit
! 166
| '''[[Contionary: rǭks#Valthungian|rǭks]]''' (''m'')
| smoke
|-
! 029
| '''[[Contionary: brǣþs#Valthungian|brǣþs]]'''
| wide, broad
! 098
| '''[[Contionary: wǣžin#Valthungian|vǣžin]]'''
| to blow
! 167
| '''[[Contionary: fōr#Valthungian|fōr]]''' (''n'')
| fire
|-
! 030
| '''[[Contionary: þikus#Valthungian|þikus]]'''
| thick
! 099
| '''[[Contionary: anan#Valthungian|anan]]'''
| to breathe
! 168
| '''[[Contionary: aska#Valthungian|aska]]''' (''f'')
| ash, ashes
|-
! 031
| '''[[Contionary: korus#Valthungian|korus]]'''
| heavy
! 100
| '''[[Contionary: þlǣšin#Valthungian|þlǣšin]]'''
| to laugh
! 169
| '''[[Contionary: britnan#Valthungian|britnan]]''', '''[[Contionary: bretnin#Valthungian|bretnin]]'''
| burn
|-
! 032
| '''[[Contionary: līts#Valthungian|līts]]''', '''[[Contionary: lītils#Valthungian|lītils]]'''
| small, little
! 101
| '''[[Contionary: sǣjun#Valthungian|sǣjun]]''', '''[[Contionary: wlītna#Valthungian|vlītna]]'''
| to see
! 170
| '''[[Contionary: stǣga#Valthungian|stǣga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: gatua#Valthungian|gatua]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: pleča#Valthungian|pleča]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: wiǧ#Valthungian|viǧ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: 413#Valthungian|413]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: fordore#Valthungian|fordore]]''' (''n'')
| path, road, trail
|-
! 033
| '''[[Contionary: skrots#Valthungian|skrots]]'''
| short
! 102
| '''[[Contionary: hœ̄šin#Valthungian|hœ̄šin]]''', '''[[Contionary: anhœ̄šin#Valthungian|anhœ̄šin]]'''
| to hear
! 171
| '''[[Contionary: breǧ#Valthungian|breǧ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: fregune#Valthungian|fregune]]''' (''n'')
| mountain
|-
! 034
| '''[[Contionary: angus#Valthungian|angus]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrǣns#Valthungian|þrǣns]]'''
| narrow
! 103
| '''[[Contionary: witna#Valthungian|vitna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kutnan#Valthungian|kutnan]]'''
| to know
! 172
| '''[[Contionary: rōþs#Valthungian|rōþs]]'''
| red
|-
! 035
| '''[[Contionary: þutnus#Valthungian|þutnus]]'''
| thin
! 104
| '''[[Contionary: hyǧin#Valthungian|hyǧin]]''', '''[[Contionary: þenčin#Valthungian|þenčin]]''', '''[[Contionary: mitan#Valthungian|mitan]]''', '''[[Contionary: munan#Valthungian|munan]]'''
| to think
! 173
| '''[[Contionary: grœunis#Valthungian|grœunis]]'''
| green
|-
! 036
| '''[[Contionary: kwina#Valthungian|kuina]]''' (''f'')
| woman
! 105
| '''[[Contionary: dœ̄nin#Valthungian|dœ̄nin]]''' (''trs''), '''[[Contionary: stinkun#Valthungian|stinkun]]''' (''intr'')
| to smell
! 174
| '''[[Contionary: gilus#Valthungian|gilus]]'''
| yellow
|-
! 037
| '''[[Contionary: wer#Valthungian|ver]]''' (''m'')
| man
! 106
| '''[[Contionary: frœ̄čin#Valthungian|frœ̄čin]]''', '''[[Contionary: ōgna#Valthungian|ōgna]]'''
| to fear
! 175
| '''[[Contionary: hwīts#Valthungian|huīts]]'''
| white
|-
! 038
| '''[[Contionary: guma#Valthungian|guma]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: matna#Valthungian|matna]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ljuþs#Valthungian|ljuþs]]''' (''f'')
| person
! 107
| '''[[Contionary: kuižin#Valthungian|kuižin]]''', '''[[Contionary: livna#Valthungian|livna]]'''
| to sleep
! 176
| '''[[Contionary: strauks#Valthungian|strauks]]'''
| black
|-
! 039
| '''[[Contionary: bran#Valthungian|bran]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: kliþ#Valthungian|kliþ]]''' (''n'')
| child
! 108
| '''[[Contionary: slēpna#Valthungian|slēpna]]'''
| to live
! 177
| '''[[Contionary: nāts#Valthungian|nāts]]''' (''f'')
| night
|-
! 040
| '''[[Contionary: kwēns#Valthungian|kuēns]]''' (''f'')
| wife
! 109
| '''[[Contionary: ǧugna#Valthungian|ǧugna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dǭðnan#Valthungian|dǭðnan]]''', '''[[Contionary: sljutna#Valthungian|sljutna]]''', '''[[Contionary: strevna#Valthungian|strevna]]'''
| to die
! 178
| '''[[Contionary: daǧ#Valthungian|daǧ]]''' (''m'')
| day
|-
! 041
| '''[[Contionary: ava#Valthungian|ava]]''' (''m'')
| husband
! 110
| '''[[Contionary: avdœ̄þin#Valthungian|(av)]][[Contionary: dœ̄þin#Valthungian|dœ̄þin]]''', '''[[Contionary: afslagun#Valthungian|afslagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: uskwímna#Valthungian|uskuímna]]'''
| to kill
! 179
| '''[[Contionary: jēr#Valthungian|jēr]]''' (''n'')
| year
|-
! 042
| '''[[Contionary: mōðra#Valthungian|mōðra]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: ǣði#Valthungian|ǣði]]''' (''f'')
| mother
! 111
| '''[[Contionary: ǧukna#Valthungian|ǧukna]]''', '''[[Contionary: anþawīstna#Valthungian|(anþa)]][[Contionary: vīstna#Valthungian|vīstna]]''', '''[[Contionary: fǣtna#Valthungian|fǣtna]]'''
| to fight
! 180
| '''[[Contionary: wrams#Valthungian|vrams]]''', '''[[Contionary: hīts#Valthungian|hīts]]'''
| hot (''weather'')
|-
! 043
| '''[[Contionary: faðra#Valthungian|faðra]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: āta#Valthungian|āta]]''' (''m'')
| father
! 112
| '''[[Contionary: jagan#Valthungian|jagan]]''', '''[[Contionary: frelǣsčin#Valthungian|frelǣsčin]]''', '''[[Contionary: vǣþin#Valthungian|vǣþin]]'''
| to hunt
! 181
| '''[[Contionary: klaþs#Valthungian|klaþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: kōls#Valthungian|kōls]]'''
| cold (''weather'')
|-
! 044
| '''[[Contionary: ǧus#Valthungian|ǧus]]''' (''n'')
| animal
! 113
| '''[[Contionary: slagun#Valthungian|slagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: stǭtna#Valthungian|stǭtna]]''', '''[[Contionary: þningun#Valthungian|þningun]]'''
| to hit
! 182
| '''[[Contionary: fuls#Valthungian|fuls]]'''
| full
|-
! 045
| '''[[Contionary: fišk#Valthungian|fišk]]''' (''m'')
| fish
! 114
| '''[[Contionary: mǣtna#Valthungian|mǣtna]]''', '''[[Contionary: skǣðna#Valthungian|skǣðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: skrežin#Valthungian|skrežin]]''', '''[[Contionary: snīðna#Valthungian|snīðna]]'''
| to cut
! 183
| '''[[Contionary: njužis#Valthungian|njužis]]'''
| new
|-
! 046
| '''[[Contionary: fuglas#Valthungian|fuglas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: fǭls#Valthungian|fǭls]]''' (''m'')
| bird
! 115
| '''[[Contionary: slīvna#Valthungian|slīvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kljuvna#Valthungian|kljuvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: splītna#Valthungian|splītna]]'''
| to split
! 184
| '''[[Contionary: grīsis#Valthungian|grīsis]]''', '''[[Contionary: leðis#Valthungian|leðis]]''', '''[[Contionary: frenis#Valthungian|frenis]]'''
| old
|-
! 047
| '''[[Contionary: hunǧ#Valthungian|hunǧ]]''' (''m'')
| dog
! 116
| '''[[Contionary: þrǣšin#Valthungian|þrǣšin]]''', '''[[Contionary: stynǧin#Valthungian|stynǧin]]'''
| to stab, to pierce
! 185
| '''[[Contionary: gōþs#Valthungian|gōþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: tils#Valthungian|tils]]''', '''[[Contionary: sēls#Valthungian|sēls]]''', '''[[Contionary: fagra#Valthungian|fagra]]'''
| good
|-
! 048
| '''[[Contionary: lūs#Valthungian|lūs]]''' (''f'')
| louse
! 117
| '''[[Contionary: krātan#Valthungian|krātan]]'''
| to scratch
! 186
| '''[[Contionary: uvils#Valthungian|uvils]]''', '''[[Contionary: wams#Valthungian|vams]]'''
| bad
|-
! 049
| '''[[Contionary: wroms#Valthungian|vroms]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: naðra#Valthungian|naðra]]''' (''m'')
| snake
! 118
| '''[[Contionary: gravna#Valthungian|gravna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dlivna#Valthungian|dlivna]]'''
| to dig
! 187
| '''[[Contionary: fūls#Valthungian|fūls]]''', '''[[Contionary: wams#Valthungian|vams]]'''
| rotten
|-
! 050
| '''[[Contionary: maða#Valthungian|maða]]''' (''m'')
| worm
! 119
| '''[[Contionary: suitman#Valthungian|suitman]]'''
| to swim
! 188
| '''[[Contionary: unþrǣns#Valthungian|unþrǣns]]''', '''[[Contionary: sœ̄lins#Valthungian|sœ̄lins]]''', '''[[Contionary: sǭliþs#Valthungian|sǭliþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: fūls#Valthungian|fūls]]'''
| dirty
|-
! 051
| '''[[Contionary: bagmas#Valthungian|bagmas]]''' (''m'')
| tree
! 120
| '''[[Contionary: þljugna#Valthungian|þljugna]]'''
| to fly
! 189
| '''[[Contionary: drǣts#Valthungian|drǣts]]''', '''[[Contionary: rǣts#Valthungian|rǣts]]'''
| straight
|-
! 052
| '''[[Contionary: wlaðus#Valthungian|vlaðus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: braus#Valthungian|braus]]''' (''m'')
| forest, woods
! 121
| '''[[Contionary: gangna#Valthungian|gangna]]''', '''[[Contionary: gǣn#Valthungian|gǣn]]''', '''[[Contionary: traþningun#Valthungian|traþningun]]'''
| to walk
! 190
| '''[[Contionary: hlaufs#Valthungian|hlaufs]]''', '''[[Contionary: hljufs#Valthungian|hljufs]]''', '''[[Contionary: krītus#Valthungian|krītus]]'''
| round
|-
! 053
| '''[[Contionary: þrunga#Valthungian|þrunga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: staka#Valthungian|staka]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: stanga#Valthungian|stanga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: stika#Valthungian|stika]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: tǣns#Valthungian|tǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: walus#Valthungian|valus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: wandus#Valthungian|vandus]]''' (''m'')
| stick
! 122
| '''[[Contionary: ankwímna#Valthungian|(an)]][[Contionary: kwimna#Valthungian|kuímna]]'''
| come
! 191
| '''[[Contionary: huās#Valthungian|huās]]'''
| sharp
|-
! 054
| '''[[Contionary: akran#Valthungian|akran]]''' (''n'')
| fruit
! 123
| '''[[Contionary: ligna#Valthungian|ligna]]'''
| to lie (''down'')
! 192
| '''[[Contionary: slējus#Valthungian|slējus]]'''
| dull
|-
! 055
| '''[[Contionary: frǣjo#Valthungian|frǣjo]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: sēþs#Valthungian|sēþs]]''' (''f'')
| seed
! 124
| '''[[Contionary: sičin#Valthungian|sičin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: sitna#Valthungian|sitna]]'''
| to sit
! 193
| '''[[Contionary: slǣts#Valthungian|slǣts]]'''
| smooth
|-
! 056
| '''[[Contionary: blaþ#Valthungian|blaþ]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: lǭfs#Valthungian|lǭfs]]''' (''m'')
| leaf
! 125
| '''[[Contionary: standna#Valthungian|standna]]''', '''[[Contionary: stǣn#Valthungian|stǣn]]'''
| to stand
! 194
| '''[[Contionary: nats#Valthungian|nats]]'''
| wet
|-
! 057
| '''[[Contionary: vrōts#Valthungian|vrōts]]''' (''f'')
| root
! 126
| '''[[Contionary: wenǧin#Valthungian|venǧin]]''', '''[[Contionary: wrīðna#Valthungian|vrīðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: hreuvna#Valthungian|hreuvna]]'''
| to turn
! 195
| '''[[Contionary: þrosus#Valthungian|þrosus]]'''
| dry
|-
! 058
| '''[[Contionary: brakus#Valthungian|brakus]]''' (''m'')
| bark (''of tree'')
! 127
| '''[[Contionary: drjusna#Valthungian|drjusna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dūkna#Valthungian|dūkna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kringna#Valthungian|kringna]]'''
| to fall
! 196
| '''[[Contionary: garǣts#Valthungian|garǣts]]''', '''[[Contionary: undrǣžis#Valthungian|undrǣžis]]''', '''[[Contionary: wēris#Valthungian|vēris]]'''
| correct, right
|-
! 059
| '''[[Contionary: blōma#Valthungian|blōma]]''' (''m'')
| flower
! 128
| '''[[Contionary: givna#Valthungian|givna]]'''
| to give
! 197
| '''[[Contionary: nēfus#Valthungian|nēfus]]'''
| near
|-
! 060
| '''[[Contionary: hauge#Valthungian|hauge]]''' (''n'')
| grass
! 129
| '''[[Contionary: hlaðna#Valthungian|hlaðna]]'''
| to hold
! 198
| '''[[Contionary: vīþs#Valthungian|vīþs]]'''
| far
|-
! 061
| '''[[Contionary: rǣp#Valthungian|rǣp]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: wiða#Valthungian|viða]]''' (''f'')
| rope
! 130
| '''[[Contionary: þrīstna#Valthungian|þrīstna]]''', '''[[Contionary: gaprángna#Valthungian|gaprángna]]'''
| to squeeze
! 199
| '''[[Contionary: tǣsus#Valthungian|tǣsus]]'''
| right (''hand'')
|-
! 062
| '''[[Contionary: hūþs#Valthungian|hūþs]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: fil#Valthungian|fil]]''' (''n'')
| skin
! 131
| '''[[Contionary: bingun#Valthungian|bingun]]''', '''[[Contionary: strjukna#Valthungian|strjukna]]''', '''[[Contionary: strǣkan#Valthungian|strǣkan]]'''
| to rub
! 200
| '''[[Contionary: þlīðums#Valthungian|þlīðums]]'''
| left (''hand'')
|-
! 063
| '''[[Contionary: mims#Valthungian|mims]]''' (''m'')
| flesh, meat
! 132
| '''[[Contionary: þwagun#Valthungian|þuagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrǣnin#Valthungian|þrǣnin]]'''
| to wash
! 201
| '''[[Contionary: at#Valthungian|at]]''', '''[[Contionary: tō#Valthungian|tō]]''', (''dative'')
| at
|-
! 064
| '''[[Contionary: blōþ#Valthungian|blōþ]]''' (''n'')
| blood
! 133
| '''[[Contionary: bistreuvna#Valthungian|(bi)]][[Contionary: streuvna#Valthungian|streuvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: wrīvna#Valthungian|vrīvna]]'''
| to wipe
! 202
| '''[[Contionary: in#Valthungian|in]]'''
| in
|-
! 065
| '''[[Contionary: bǣn#Valthungian|bǣn]]''' (''n'')
| bone
! 134
| '''[[Contionary: þinsna#Valthungian|þinsna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dragna#Valthungian|dragna]]''', '''[[Contionary: čugun#Valthungian|čugun]]'''
| to pull
! 203
| '''[[Contionary: miþ#Valthungian|miþ]]'''
| with
|-
! 066
| '''[[Contionary: simbréðra#Valthungian|simbréðra]]''' (''n'')
| fat
! 135
| '''[[Contionary: þnītna#Valthungian|þnītna]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrindna#Valthungian|þrindna]]''', '''[[Contionary: prangna#Valthungian|prangna]]''', '''[[Contionary: šuvna#Valthungian|šuvna]]'''
| to push
! 204
| '''[[Contionary: jā#Valthungian|jā]]''', '''[[Contionary: ǭk#Valthungian|ǭk]]''', '''[[Contionary: -u#Valthungian|-u]]'''
| and
|-
! 067
| '''[[Contionary: āde#Valthungian|āde]]''' (''n'')
| egg
! 136
| '''[[Contionary: wrepna#Valthungian|vrepna]]''', '''[[Contionary: smītna#Valthungian|smītna]]'''
| to throw
! 205
| '''[[Contionary: java#Valthungian|java]]''', '''[[Contionary: iva#Valthungian|iva]]'''
| if
|-
! 068
| '''[[Contionary: hron#Valthungian|hron]]''' (''n'')
| horn
! 137
| '''[[Contionary: bindna#Valthungian|bindna]]'''
| to tie, bind
! 206
| '''[[Contionary: inþis#Valthungian|inþis]]''', '''[[Contionary: unta#Valthungian|unta]]''', '''[[Contionary: nū#Valthungian|nū]]''', '''[[Contionary: þī#Valthungian|þī]]''', '''[[Contionary: inþížas ī wǣtis#Valthungian|inþížas ī vǣtis]]'''
| because
|-
! 069
| '''[[Contionary: tagla#Valthungian|tagla]]''' (''n'')
| tail
! 138
| '''[[Contionary: šužin#Valthungian|šužin]]'''
| to sew
! 207
| '''[[Contionary: nama#Valthungian|nama]]''' (''n'')
| name
|}
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