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Kirtumur verbs: Difference between revisions
→Directional prefixes
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===Directional prefixes=== | ===Directional prefixes=== | ||
Two prefixes, used most commonly with verbs of motion are the [[w:Andative and venitive|andative]] prefix ''xi-'' and the [[w:Andative and venitive|venitive]] prefix ''ei-/i-''. In the general sense, the prefix "''ei''" shows movement towards the listener or the deictic centre and "''xi''" shows movement from or away from it: ''taukhiŋ '''lei'''hašalis'' "I will travel '''to you''' tomorrow" and '''''laxi'''šilais mu-ŋiarepe'' "I will leave '''(from) you''' now, since I don’t feel good". The andative is used less often, than the venitive and in some cases this prefix can be dropped, when the meaning of a phrase can be inferred from the context: ''lašilais'' ("about to leave you"). | Two prefixes, used most commonly with verbs of motion are the [[w:Andative and venitive|andative]] prefix ''xi-'' and the [[w:Andative and venitive|venitive]] prefix ''ei-/i-''. In the general sense, the prefix "''ei''" shows movement towards the listener or the deictic centre and "''xi''" shows movement from or away from it: ''taukhiŋ '''lei'''hašalis'' "I will travel '''to you''' tomorrow" and '''''laxi'''šilais mu-ŋiarepe'' "I will leave '''(from) you''' now, since I don’t feel good". The andative is used less often, than the venitive and in some cases this prefix can be dropped, when the meaning of a phrase can be inferred from the context: ''lašilais'' ("about to leave you"). | ||
===Voice and valency=== | |||
Verbs refer to actions and states which involve participants. The number and kinds of participants involved differ between different actions and states and thus between different verbs. In this way every verb combines with a specific set of grammatical relations (subject and objects). This set is called its [[w:Valency (linguistics)|valency]]. Kirtumur has several mechanisms which change the normal valency of a verb. The [[w:Voice_(grammar)#Middle|middle]], [[w:Passive voice|passive]] and [[w:Antipassive voice|antipassive]] voices reduce its valency. For increasing the valency of a verb, it has [[w:Causative|causative]] constructions. | |||
Middle voice is unmarked and morphologically looks fairly similar to the active voice of intransitive verbs: ''hakaure'' "I am sleeping (active)", ''hakhat'' "I stop (middle)"; the only difference is the absence of ''"-e"'' in middle verbs. The subject of such verbs is like the subject of active verbs, but it is also affected by the action it performs. This also makes this voice similar to [[w:Reflexive verb|reflexive]], which, unlike the former, has a direct object, which is the same as the subject: ''eca'''m'''akhat'' "I stopped '''myself''' from (doing) it". | |||
An antipassive is an intransitive construction derived from a transitive one by changing the agent of a transitive verb into an intransitive subject, while the former patient becomes the [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]]. Unlike middle verbs, an antipassive verb must contain the adjunct and it can never be dropped: ''hakhathō'' "I am stopped by you" from ''khathō'' "I stop you". Antipassive is rarely used on its own, it usually emphasises contrast or focuses on the intransitive subject of a sentence. | |||
In a clause with passive voice, the patient of the main verb becomes the intransitive subject, while the former agent is deleted. Morphologically it is formed from a transitive verb by replacing its person suffix with a prefix ''m-'': ''khathō'' "I stop you" – '''''m'''ōkhathe'' "You are stopped" (here the suffix "''-e''" reappears, because it is no longer blocked by the person suffix). Unlike antipassive, passivisation always involves deleting the transitive subject, never changing it into an adjunct. This construction is called the dynamic passive, the usage of which is restricted, because it is similar to reflexive and in some cases the forms can coincide: ''meyil'' means either "it was thrown away" or "it threw itself away". Kirtumur solves this ambiguity by mainly choosing a reflexive meaning, while for a passive meaning the stative passive is used instead: ''yilauni'' "thrown away"; this is a non-finite verb form and usually such forms cannot be used on their own in a sentence, for example, the sentence ''heimnu '''ritēni''' amax'' "(this) is the place, where his/her house '''is built'''" is correct, because it contains a [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] ''amax'', while ''*heimnu '''ritēni''' yim'' "*here his/her house '''built'''" is not valid, because it requires a finite verb. A stative passive differs from a dynamic passive in that it only indicates the event or state and does not specify its duration. The form ''heim mirite'' "the house is being built" indicates that the action is ongoing, unlike the previous example. | |||
Kirtumur has two causative constructions, one derived from an intransitive construction and the other – from a transitive construction. In both cases the valency of the verb is increased by | |||
one participant. The causative of an intransitive verb becomes a regular transitive verb: the intransitive subject becomes the patient, while the causer is expressed | |||
by the agent. Such verbs, as "to hold" or "to do", are intransitive by default and in order to indicate the subject they require causative: ''ikhe'' "she/he is doing (something)" ''hēlnim ikhaē'' "she/he is casting a spell". The causative of a transitive construction is derived in a slightly different way. The causer is likewise expressed by the agent, but the original agent becomes the indirect object. The original patient remains unchanged: ''nakhei ŋeša uttexe'' "I made him/her do it faster" (3Sg.IndObj-do-1sgAg.3sgPat fast-INF before-DAT). | |||
==Non-finite verb forms== | ==Non-finite verb forms== | ||