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Carpathian verbs: Difference between revisions

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Carpathian verbs (view source)

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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! Athematic
! Thematic
! Athematic
! Athematic
! Thematic
! Thematic
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! colspan="2" | Aorist
! colspan="2" | Aorist
! colspan="2" | Perfect
! colspan="2" | Perfect
! colspan="2" | Optative
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
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| ''-ai''
| ''-ai''
| ''-a''
| ''-a''
| ''-(j)ēn''
| ''-(j)ain''
|-
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
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| ''-tai''
| ''-tai''
| ''-ta''
| ''-ta''
| ''-(j)ēs''
| ''-(j)ais''
|-
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
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| ''-e''
| ''-e''
| ''-ei''
| ''-ei''
| ''-e''
| ''-i''
| ''-(j)ē''
| ''-(j)ai''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]
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| ''-wā́''
| ''-wā́''
| ''-wā́''
| ''-wā́''
| ''-(j)ḗwā''
| ''-(j)aĩwā''
|-
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
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| ''-tā́''
| ''-tā́''
| ''-tā́''
| ''-tā́''
| ''-(j)ḗtā''
| ''-(j)aĩtā''
|-
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
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| ''-tìs
| ''-tìs
| ''-tìs
| ''-tìs
| ''-(j)ḗtis''
| ''-(j)aĩtis''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
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| ''-mè''
| ''-mè''
| ''-mè''
| ''-mè''
| ''-(j)ḗmes''
| ''-(j)aĩma''
|-
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
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| ''-tè''
| ''-tè''
| ''-tè''
| ''-tè''
| ''-(j)ḗte''
| ''-(j)aĩte''
|-
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
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| ''-ínti''
| ''-ínti''
| ''-ín''
| ''-ín''
| ''-(j)énti''
| ''-ajín''
|-
|-
|}
|}
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present thematic ending is ''-mun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma''.
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.


==Conjugation==
==Conjugation==
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffix-thematic ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense.
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense.  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]
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! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)
|-
|-
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
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!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
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|''turiū́''
|''turiū́''
|''gidā́hū''
|''gidā́hū''
|''zirhḗjū''
|-
|-
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
|''skeĩsti''
|''skeĩsi''
|''stèrhei''
|''stèrhei''
|''turiéi''
|''turiéi''
|''gidā́hei''
|''gidā́hei''
|''zirhḗjei''
|-
|-
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
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|''stèrhe''
|''stèrhe''
|''tùrie''
|''tùrie''
|''gidā́''
|''gidā́he''
|''zirhḗje''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
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|''turiewā́''
|''turiewā́''
|''gidewā́''
|''gidewā́''
|''zirhējewā́''
|-
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
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|''turietā́''
|''turietā́''
|''gidetā́''
|''gidetā́''
|''zirhējetā́''
|-
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du}}]]
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
|''skeistìs''
|''skeistìs''
|''sterhetìs''
|''sterhetìs''
|''turietìs''
|''turietìs''
|''gidetìs''
|''gidetìs''
|''zirhējetìs''
|-
|-
! rowspan="6" |[[Plural]]
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]
|''skeimès''
|''skeimès''
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|''turiemà''
|''turiemà''
|''gidemà''
|''gidemà''
|''zirhējemà''
|-
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
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|''turietè''
|''turietè''
|''gidetè''
|''gidetè''
|''zirhējetè''
|-
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
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|''turiañti''
|''turiañti''
|''gidañti''
|''gidañti''
|''zirhējañti''
|}
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! Athematic verbs
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)
|-
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]
|''skeĩtun''
|''stèrhun''
|''turḗjun''
|''gidā́sun''
|''zirhḗjun''
|-
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
|''skeĩs''
|''stèrhis''
|''turḗjis''
|''gidā́sis''
|''zirhḗjis''
|-
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
|''skeĩ''
|''stèrhe''
|''turḗ''
|''gidā́se''
|''zirhḗ''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]
|''skeitawā́''
|''sterhawā́''
|''turēwā́''
|''gidāsawā́''
|''zirhēwā́''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
|''skeitatā́''
|''sterhatā́''
|''turētā́''
|''gidāsatā́''
|''zirhētā́''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
|''skeitatìs''
|''sterhatìs''
|''turētìs''
|''gidāsatìs''
|''zirhētìs''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]
|''skeitamè''
|''sterhamè''
|''turēmè''
|''gidāsamè''
|''zirhēmè''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
|''skeitatè''
|''sterhatè''
|''turētè''
|''gidāsatè''
|''zirhētè''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
|''skeitiñ''
|''sterhañ''
|''turējañ''
|''gidāsañ''
|''zirhējañ''
|}
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! Athematic verbs
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)
|-
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]
|''skéitun''
|''stirhán''
|''turián''
|''gidián''
|''zirhḗjan''
|-
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
|''skéis''
|''stirhē̃s''
|''turiḗs''
|''gidā́s''
|''zirhḗjēs''
|-
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
|''skéi''
|''stirhē̃''
|''turiḗ''
|''gidā́''
|''zirhḗjē''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]
|''skitē̃wā''
|''stirhē̃wā''
|''turḗwā''
|''gidā́wā''
|''zirhējḗwā''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
|''skitē̃tā''
|''stirhē̃tā''
|''turḗtā''
|''gidā́tā''
|''zirhējḗtā''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
|''skitē̃tis''
|''stirhē̃tis''
|''turḗtis''
|''gidā́tis''
|''zirhējḗtis''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]
|''skitē̃me''
|''stirhē̃me''
|''turiḗme''
|''gidā́me''
|''zirhējḗme''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
|''skitē̃te''
|''stirhē̃te''
|''turiḗte''
|''gidā́te''
|''zirhējḗte''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
|''skiteñ''
|''stirheñ''
|''turējeñ''
|''gidāseñ''
|''zirhējeñ''
|}
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! Athematic verbs
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)
|-
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]
|''skaĩtai''
|''stàrha''
|''turḗja''
|''gidā́ha''
|''zirhḗja''
|-
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
|''skaĩstai''
|''stàrta''
|''turḗta''
|''gidā́ta''
|''zirhḗta''
|-
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
|''skaĩtei''
|''stàrhe''
|''turḗje''
|''gidā́he''
|''zirhḗje''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]
|''skaitwā́''
|''stárwā''
|''turḗwā''
|''gidā́wā''
|''zirhḗwā''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
|''skaistā́''
|''stártā''
|''turḗtā''
|''gidā́tā''
|''zirhḗtā''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
|''skaistìs''
|''stártis''
|''turḗtis''
|''gidā́tis''
|''zirhḗtis''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]
|''skaimè''
|''stárme''
|''turḗme''
|''gidā́me''
|''zirhḗme''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
|''skaistè''
|''stárte''
|''turḗte''
|''gidā́te''
|''zirhḗte''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
|''skaitínti''
|''starhin''
|''turḗjin''
|''gidā́hin''
|''zirhḗjin''
|}
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! Athematic verbs
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)
|-
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]
|''skeĩsiū''
|''stèrhesiū''
|''turḗsiū''
|''gidā́siū''
|''zirhḗsiū''
|-
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
|''skeĩsiei''
|''stèrhesiei''
|''turḗsiei''
|''gidā́siei''
|''zirhḗsiei''
|-
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
|''skeĩs''
|''stèrhis''
|''turḗs''
|''gidā́s''
|''zirhḗs''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]
|''skeĩsiwā''
|''stèrhesiwā''
|''turḗsiwā''
|''gidā́siwā''
|''zirhḗsiwā''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
|''skeĩsitā''
|''stèrhesitā''
|''turḗsitā''
|''gidā́sitā''
|''zirhḗsitā''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
|''skeĩsitis''
|''stèrhesitis''
|''turḗsitis''
|''gidā́sitis''
|''zirhḗsitis''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]
|''skeĩsima''
|''stèrhesima''
|''turḗsima''
|''gidā́sima''
|''zirhḗsima''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
|''skeĩsite''
|''stèrhesite''
|''turḗsite''
|''gidā́site''
|''zirhḗsite''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
|''skeĩsianti''
|''stèrhesianti''
|''turḗsianti''
|''gidā́sianti''
|''zirhḗsianti''
|}
The future tense in  Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! Athematic verbs
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)
|-
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]
|''skìtiēn''
|''stèrhain''
|''tùriain''
|''gidā́hain''
|''zirhḗjain''
|-
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
|''skìtiēs''
|''stèrhais''
|''tùriais''
|''gidā́hais''
|''zirhḗjais''
|-
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
|''skìtiēs''
|''stèrhai''
|''tùriai''
|''gidā́hai''
|''zirhḗjai''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]
|''skitiḗwā''
|''sterhaĩwā''
|''turiaĩwā''
|''gidahaĩwā''
|''zirhḗjaiwā''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
|''skitiḗtā''
|''sterhaĩtā''
|''turiaĩtā''
|''gidahaĩtā''
|''zirhḗjaitā''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
|''skitiḗtis''
|''sterhaĩtis''
|''turiaĩtis''
|''gidahaĩtis''
|''zirhḗjaitis''
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]
|''skitiḗmes''
|''sterhaĩma''
|''turiaĩma''
|''gidahaĩma''
|''zirhḗjaima''
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
|''skitiḗte''
|''stèrhaĩte''
|''turiaĩte''
|''gidahaĩte''
|''zirhḗjaite''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
|''skitiénti''
|''sterhajín''
|''turējín''
|''gidāhín''
|''zirhḗjin''
|}
|}
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! Athematic verbs
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)
|-
!''skeistéi'' “to read”
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
|''skitiè''
|''stèrhi''
|''tùri''
|''gidā́hi''
|''zirhḗ''
|-
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]
|''skeĩstu''
|''stèrhie''
|''tùrie''
|''gidā́he''
|''zirhḗ''
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
|''skistā́''
|''sterhetā́''
|''turitā́''
|''giditā́''
|''zirhḗjetā''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
|''skistìs''
|''sterhetìs''
|''turitìs''
|''giditìs''
|''zirhḗjetis''
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
|''skistè''
|''sterhetè''
|''turitè''
|''giditè''
|''zirhḗjete''
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
|''skiténtu''
|''sterhañtu''
|''turiañtu''
|''gidañtu''
|''zirhḗjantu''
|}
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.
===Inactive verbs===
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Impersonal
! Autocausative
|-
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''j''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
|-
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”
|-
! Present
|''sniñgi''
|''zarḗ''
|''lī́ji''
|''supéimisin''
|-
! Aorist
|''snìgā''
|''zàriā''
|''lìjā''
|''supā́misin''
|-
! Imperfect
|''snìgḗ''
|''zàriḗ''
|''lìjḗ''
|''supḗmisin''
|-
! Perfect
|''snìga''
|''zària''
|''lìja''
|''supā́jamisin''
|-
! Future
|''snìgis''
|''zarḗs''
|''lī́s''
|''supā́smisin''
|-
! Optative
|''snìgai''
|''zàriai''
|''lī́jai''
|''supā́jaimisin''
|-
! Subjunctive
|''snìge''
|''zàre''
|''lìje''
|''sùpemisin''
|-
|}
===Object markers===
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Direct Objects
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
|-
! <small>animate proximate</small>
! <small>animate obviate</small>
! <small>inanimate proximate</small>
! <small>inanimate obviate</small>
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
| ''-mi''
| ''-ti''
| ''-(j)i''
| ''-ni''
| ''-sa''
| ''-ta''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]
| ''-nū''
| ''-wū''
| ''-(j)ī''
| ''-nai''
| ''-sai''
| ''-tai''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
| ''-nas''
| ''-was''
| ''-is''
| ''-nan''
| ''-sā''
| ''-tā''
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Indirect Objects
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
|-
! <small>animate proximate</small>
! <small>animate obviate</small>
! <small>inanimate proximate</small>
! <small>inanimate obviate</small>
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
| ''mei-''
| ''tei-''
| ''ei-''
| ''nai-''
| ''sai-''
| ''tai-''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]
| ''nō-''
| ''wō-''
| ''ī-''
| ''nan-''
| ''san-''
| ''tan-''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
| ''in-''
| ''us-''
| ''īn-''
| ''nei-''
| ''sei-''
| ''tei-''
|-
|}
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix
! 3sg Present
! Infinitive
! Examples
! Function
! Notes
|-
| ''-na''
| ''-ne''
| ''-natei''
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".
|-
| ''-j''
| ''-je''
| ''-tei''
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".
|-
| ''-j''
| ''-ie''
| ''-tei''
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.
|-
| ''-ēj''
| ''-ēje''
| ''-ētei''
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br/>''dih'''ē'''tei'' “to think”
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.
|-
| ''-ā''
| ''-āhe''
| ''-ātei''
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.
|-
| ''-ō''
| ''-ōhe''
| ''-ōtei''
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/>
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.
|-
| ''-au''
| ''-auje''
| ''-autei''
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīl'''au'''tei'' “to endear”
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.
|-
| ''-ī''
| ''-ī''
| ''-ītei''
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kail'''ī'''tei'' “to cure”<br/>''parg'''ī'''tei'' “to fry”
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].
| The vowel "-ī-" becomes "-ei", when final.
|-
| ''-jē''
| ''-iei''
| ''-ētei''
| ''milk'''ē'''tei'' “to be silent”<br/>''mud'''ē'''tei'' “to be weak”<br/>''girb'''ē'''tei'' “to have a need for something”
| Inactive imperfective denominal verbs.
| The vowel "-e-" becomes "-ei-", when final.
|-
|}
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.
Carpathian prefixes:
{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix
! Examples
! Approximate<br>meaning
! Notes
|-
| ''ar-''
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”
| “dis-”, “un-”.
|
|-
| ''at-''
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”
| “from”, “back”.
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.
|-
| ''ap-''
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”
| “around”.
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.
|-
| ''da-''
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”
| “towards”, “till”.
|
|-
| ''au-''
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”
| “between”, “at”.
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.
|-
| ''in-''
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”
| “in”, “into”.
|
|-
| ''is-''
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”
| “out of”.
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.
|-
| ''ni-''
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”
| “down”, “below”.
|
|-
| ''nō-''
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”
| “up”, “over”.
|
|-
| ''pō-''
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”
| “later”.
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.
|-
| ''pa-''
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels
|-
| ''per-''
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''par-''
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”
| “along”, “completely”.
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''perei-''
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”
| “by”, “next to”.
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.
|-
| ''pirt-''
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”
| “against”.
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.
|-
| ''ō-''
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.
|-
| ''sam-''
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”
| “together”.
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''su-''
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”
| “good”.
|
|-
| ''sun-''
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”
| “with”, “alongside”.
|
|-
| ''uz-''
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.
|-
| ''zō-''
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”
| “behind”, “after”.
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels
|-
|}
==Periphrastic formations==
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]
| ''bū́n''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
| ''bū́s''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
| ''bū́''
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]
| ''bū́wā''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
| ''bū́tā''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
| ''bū́tis''
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]
| ''bū́me''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
| ''bū́te''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
| ''bū́wen''
|-
|}
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.
==Participles==
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |
! colspan=4| Simple
! colspan=4| Pronominal
|-
! <small>masculine</small>
! <small>neuter</small>
! <small>feminine</small>
! <small>common</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
! <small>neuter</small>
! <small>feminine</small>
! <small>common</small>
|-
! colspan=8| Active
|-
! rowspan=3| Imperfective
! <small>sg</small>
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis
|-
! rowspan=3| Aorist
! <small>sg</small>
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis
|-
! rowspan=3| Perfect
! <small>sg</small>
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis
|-
! rowspan=3| Desiderative
! <small>sg</small>
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis
|-
! rowspan=3| Resultative
! <small>sg</small>
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis
|-
|}
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.


[[Category:Carpathian]]
[[Category:Carpathian]]
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