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<span class="c89 c143">Standard Average Indo-European</span>
[[File:media/image1.png|624x624px]]


<span class="c123 c127 c138">A constructed auxiliary language</span>


<span style="overflow: hidden; display: inline-block; margin: 0.00px 0.00px; border: 0.00px solid #000000; transform: rotate(0.00rad) translateZ(0px); -webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad) translateZ(0px); width: 624.00px; height: 624.00px;">[[File:images/image1.png]]</span>
= 0 Introduction =


{{Infobox language
'''sl̥Hwéje!''' '''ghr̥jé!''' '''némostoj!''' '''sr̥wós!''' '''priwójtos!''' '''sqéjttis!''' '''kl̥Hâjō!''' '''jánu!''' and finally, ''hello''!
|name              = Standard Average Indo-European (SAvIE)
|nativename        = sâ jéktis
|pronunciation    = saː ˈjɛktis
|pronunciation_key = IPA for SAvIE
|created          = June 10, 2024
|familycolor      = Indo-European
|creator          = tradespin
|script1          = Latn
|notice            = IPA
}}


<span id="h.33iu03e5lb90"></span>
Thank you very much for your interest in Standard Average Indo-European. I began this project on June 10th, 2024, without the intention of taking it particularly seriously. A few months and much research later have transformed the project into something that has exceeded my expectations at every stage. So, it is with great pleasure that I present the following document for public viewing.
= <span class="c89 c109"></span> =


<span id="h.a5yni85og49x"></span>
The major principle of SAvIE is its adherence to the features of Standard Average European as set out by Martin Haspelmath (2001). This essentially projects a set of features shared by many modern Indo-European languages onto Proto-Indo-European. The result is a language which appears and sounds as though it were a proto-language, but operates with much more modern features, especially those confined to western Indo-European.
= <span class="c89 c109">0                        Introduction</span> =


<span class="c27">sl̥Hwéje</span><sup>[[#cmnt1|[a]]]</sup><span class="c27">! </span><span class="c27">ghr̥jé</span><sup>[[#cmnt2|[b]]]</sup><span class="c27">! </span><span class="c27">némostoj</span><sup>[[#cmnt3|[c]]]</sup><span class="c27">! </span><span class="c27">sr̥wós</span><sup>[[#cmnt4|[d]]]</sup><span class="c27">! </span><span class="c27">priwójtos</span><sup>[[#cmnt5|[e]]]</sup><span class="c27">! </span><span class="c27">sqéjttis</span><sup>[[#cmnt6|[f]]]</sup><span class="c27">! </span><span class="c27">kl̥Hâjō</span><sup>[[#cmnt7|[g]]]</sup><span class="c27">! </span><span class="c27">jánu</span><sup>[[#cmnt8|[h]]]</sup><span class="c27">!</span><span> and finally, </span><span class="c20">hello</span><span class="c12">!</span>
Given my choice to use Proto-Indo-European as the basis for this language, I have both had to make specific choices in reconstruction based on preexisting academic work (chiefly Leiden etymological dictionaries), and ensure a wide range of vocabulary within the language in order to be representative of vocabulary in modern languages. This becomes very clear with the examples above, which are remodeled from Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and multiple Slavic and Germanic varieties, as well as examples of internally-constructed vocabulary.


<span class="c12"></span>
The result is an extraordinary and rich language with features and words that should fundamentally be instinctive or familiar to speakers of many families outlined in Haspelmath (2001). Ultimately, however, this was an artistic project above all, and has given me so much more pleasure than I ever expected.


<span class="c12">Thank you very much for your interest in Standard Average Indo-European. I began this project on June 10th, 2024, without the intention of taking it particularly seriously. A few months and much research later have transformed the project into something that has exceeded my expectations at every stage. So, it is with great pleasure that I present the following document for public viewing.</span>
I would like to recognise the important work of Indo-Europeanists in making this project possible, and the contributions made by individuals in the ''Celtic Tearooms'' and ''IE Conlangs'' Discord servers.


<span class="c12"></span>
'''Hsubhrūgéte!''' Enjoy!


<span class="c12">The major principle of SAvIE is its adherence to the features of Standard Average European as set out by Martin Haspelmath (2001). This essentially projects a set of features shared by many modern Indo-European languages onto Proto-Indo-European. The result is a language which appears and sounds as though it were a proto-language, but operates with much more modern features, especially those confined to western Indo-European.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
---
=1 Phonology =


<span class="c12">Given my choice to use Proto-Indo-European as the basis for this language, I have both had to make specific choices in reconstruction based on preexisting academic work (chiefly Leiden etymological dictionaries), and ensure a wide range of vocabulary within the language in order to be representative of vocabulary in modern languages. This becomes very clear with the examples above, which are remodeled from Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and multiple Slavic and Germanic varieties, as well as examples of internally-constructed vocabulary.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
== 1.1 Consonants ==


<span class="c12">The result is an extraordinary and rich language with features and words that should fundamentally be instinctive or familiar to speakers of many families outlined in Haspelmath (2001). Ultimately, however, this was an artistic project above all, and has given me so much more pleasure than I ever expected.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
=== 1.1.1 *m, *n ===


<span>I would like to recognise the important work of Indo-Europeanists in making this project possible, and the contributions made by individuals in the </span><span class="c20">Celtic Tearooms</span><span> and </span><span class="c20">IE Conlangs</span><span class="c12"> Discord servers.</span>
These appear as ⟨m⟩ [m] and ⟨n⟩ [n].


<span class="c12"></span>
⟨n⟩ before velar consonants can be pronounced as [ŋ].


<span class="c27">Hsubhrūgéte!</span><span> Enjoy!</span>
Both consonants can be syllabic resonants, written ⟨m̥⟩ and ⟨n̥⟩ or ⟨ṃ⟩ and ⟨ṇ⟩.




-----
=== 1.1.2 *r, *l ===


<span id="h.89wjvws38x1p"></span>
⟨r⟩ can be pronounced as any rhotic sound, including but not limited to [ɾ], [r] and [ɹ].
= <span class="c89 c109">1                        Phonology</span> =


<span id="h.x09ampbnwi8d"></span>
⟨l⟩ is pronounced as [l].
== <span class="c41 c16">1.1                        Consonants</span> ==


<span class="c12"></span>
Both consonants can be syllabic resonants, written ⟨l̥⟩ and ⟨r̥⟩ or ⟨ḷ⟩ and ⟨ṛ⟩. When ⟨r⟩ appears as the syllabic resonant ⟨r̥⟩ or ⟨ṛ⟩, it should avoid being pronounced as [ɾ], and a sonorant sound should be used instead.


<span id="h.pykgspg0xcze"></span>
=== <span class="c150">1.1.1                        *</span><span>m</span><span class="c63">, *n</span> ===


<span class="c12">These appear as ⟨m⟩ [m] and ⟨n⟩ [n].</span>
=== 1.1.3 *s ===


<span class="c12">⟨n⟩ before velar consonants can be pronounced as [ŋ].</span>
This appears as ⟨s⟩ [s], but following the evidence of daughter languages, it can be pronounced [z] in the cluster /sd/ or /sdʰ/, in which case it can optionally be written as ⟨z⟩ [z], such as '''nizdós''' &quot;nest&quot; for '''''nisdós''''' or '''sízdō''' &quot;I am sitting&quot; for '''''sísdō'''''. In addition to [s] it can be pronounced [s̱], [θ], or even [ɕ], [ʃ] when adjacent to the sounds ⟨y⟩ [j] or ⟨i⟩ [i].


<span class="c12">Both consonants can be syllabic resonants, written ⟨m̥⟩ and ⟨n̥⟩ or ⟨ṃ⟩ and ⟨ṇ⟩.</span>
The '''s-mobile''' is written ⟨S⟩, such as in the word '''Stégos''' &quot;roof&quot;, and may be pronounced [s] or be entirely silent.


<span id="h.xnffu6necjm1"></span>
=== <span class="c63">1.1.2                        *r, *l</span> ===


<span class="c12">⟨r⟩ can be pronounced as any rhotic sound, including but not limited to [ɾ], [r] and [ɹ].</span>
=== 1.1.4 *j, *w ===


<span class="c12">⟨l⟩ is pronounced as [l].</span>
These appear as ⟨j⟩ [j] and ⟨w⟩ [w].


<span class="c12">Both consonants can be syllabic resonants, written ⟨l̥⟩ and ⟨r̥⟩ or ⟨ḷ⟩ and ⟨ṛ⟩. When ⟨r⟩ appears as the syllabic resonant ⟨r̥⟩ or ⟨ṛ⟩, it should avoid being pronounced as [ɾ], and a sonorant sound should be used instead.</span>


<span id="h.xelpsjf3soxx"></span>
=== 1.1.5 Dorsals ===
=== <span class="c63">1.1.3                        *s</span> ===


<span>This appears as ⟨s⟩ [s], but following the evidence of daughter languages, it can be pronounced [z] in the cluster /sd/ or /sdʰ/, in which case it can optionally be written as ⟨z⟩ [z], such as </span><span class="c27">nizdós</span><span> &quot;nest&quot; for </span><span class="c20 c27">nisdós</span><span class="c27"> </span><span>or </span><span class="c27">sízdō</span><span> &quot;I am sitting&quot; for </span><span class="c20 c27">sísdō</span><span class="c12">. In addition to [s] it can be pronounced [s̱], [θ], or even [ɕ], [ʃ] when adjacent to the sounds ⟨y⟩ [j] or ⟨i⟩ [i].</span>
The realisation of dorsal consonants is very complex and hotly debated by Indo-Europeanists. This document will present the traditional reconstruction of these sounds, but the reader should feel free to apply any other realisations with which they agree more, if that should be the case.


<span>The </span><span class="c27">s-mobile</span><span> is written ⟨S⟩, such as in the word </span><span class="c27">Stégos</span><span class="c12"> &quot;roof&quot;, and may be pronounced [s] or be entirely silent.</span>


<span id="h.6b30ef8psgp0"></span>
==== 1.1.5.1 *k, *g, *gʰ ====
=== <span class="c63">1.1.4                        *j, *w</span> ===


<span>These appear as ⟨j⟩ [j] and ⟨w⟩ [w].</span>
These appear as plain consonants, not labialised or palatalised, as ⟨k⟩ [k], ⟨g⟩ [g], and ⟨gh⟩ [gʰ]. In alternative reconstructions they may be pronounced as [q], [ɢ], and [ɢʰ] (per Kümmel); [k], [ˀk], and [kʰ] (per Beekes); and [kː], [k'], and [k] (per Kortlandt), among others.




-----
==== 1.1.5.2 *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ ====


<span id="h.6i0zqqefnp80"></span>
These are palatalised consonants, and appear as ⟨ḱ⟩ [kʲ], ⟨ǵ⟩ [gʲ], and ⟨ǵh⟩ [gʲʰ]. The alternative reconstructions above have corresponding palatalised forms.
=== <span class="c63">1.1.5                        Dorsals</span> ===


<span class="c12">The realisation of dorsal consonants is very complex and hotly debated by Indo-Europeanists. This document will present the traditional reconstruction of these sounds, but the reader should feel free to apply any other realisations with which they agree more, if that should be the case.</span>


<span id="h.g60vhv1bewvc"></span>
==== 1.1.5.3 *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ ====
==== <span class="c108">1.1.5.1                *k, *</span><span>g</span><span class="c77">, *gʰ</span> ====


<span class="c12">These appear as plain consonants, not labialised or palatalised, as ⟨k⟩ [k], ⟨g⟩ [g], and ⟨gh⟩ [gʰ]. In alternative reconstructions they may be pronounced as [q], [ɢ], and [ɢʰ] (per Kümmel); [k], [ˀk], and [kʰ] (per Beekes); and [kː], [k'], and [k] (per Kortlandt), among others.</span>
These are labialised versions of the plain velars. They appear as ⟨q⟩ [kʷ], ⟨c⟩ [gʷ], and ⟨ch⟩ [gʷʰ]. The alternative reconstructions above have corresponding labialised forms.


<span id="h.55vz9oz89ct"></span>
==== <span class="c77">1.1.5.2                *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ</span> ====


<span class="c12">These are palatalised consonants, and appear as ⟨ḱ⟩ [kʲ], ⟨ǵ⟩ [gʲ], and ⟨ǵh⟩ [gʲʰ]. The alternative reconstructions above have corresponding palatalised forms.</span>
=== 1.1.6 *t, *d, *dʰ ===


<span id="h.m0m67cbmdomp"></span>
These appear as ⟨t⟩ [t], ⟨d⟩ [d], and ⟨dh⟩ [dʰ], or as the alternatives with pre-glottalisation, or ejectives.
==== <span class="c77">1.1.5.3                *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ</span> ====


<span class="c12">These are labialised versions of the plain velars. They appear as ⟨q⟩ [kʷ], ⟨c⟩ [gʷ], and ⟨ch⟩ [gʷʰ]. The alternative reconstructions above have corresponding labialised forms.</span>


<span id="h.rnxkz063at22"></span>
=== 1.1.7 *p, *b, *bʰ ===
=== <span class="c63">1.1.6                        *t, *d, *dʰ</span> ===


<span class="c12">These appear as ⟨t⟩ [t], ⟨d⟩ [d], and ⟨dh⟩ [dʰ], or as the alternatives with pre-glottalisation, or ejectives.</span>
These appear as ⟨p⟩ [p], ⟨b⟩ [b], and ⟨bh⟩ [bʰ], or as the alternatives with pre-glottalisation, or ejectives.


<span class="c12"></span>


<span id="h.7x3qdz16ikzy"></span>
=== 1.1.8 *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ ===
=== <span class="c63">1.1.7                        *p, *b, *bʰ</span> ===


<span>These appear as ⟨p⟩ [p], ⟨b⟩ [b], and ⟨bh⟩ [bʰ], or as the alternatives with pre-glottalisation, or ejectives.</span>
Since the pronunciation of laryngeals is so uncertain, they either colour vowels or disappear entirely. /*eh₁/ becomes [eː], /*eh₂/ becomes [aː], and /*eh₃/ becomes [oː]. Similarly, ''/*h₁e/'' becomes [e], ''/*h₂e/'' becomes [a], and ''/*h₃e/'' becomes [o]. Laryngeals do colour inherently long vowels as though they were short.


When any laryngeal begins a word before another consonant, it can become [a] or [ə]. Any laryngeal between consonants can also become [a ~ ə].


-----
An alternative and fanciful pronunciation collapses all three laryngeals into one to allow them to be pronounced, as in Anatolian and Persian languages, in addition to being deleted entirely. This can be written as ⟨H⟩ and pronounced [h], [ħ], or similar. This pronunciation must shorten long vowels.


<span id="h.bflz54bkv6at"></span>
For the laryngeal which does not colour a vowel, it can also be pronounced as a syllabic consonant, and be written as ⟨H⟩ as expected, or as ⟨H̥⟩ or ⟨Ḥ⟩ to make it absolutely clear that it is a syllabic consonant.
=== <span class="c63">1.1.8                        *h₁, *h₂, *h₃</span> ===


<span>Since the pronunciation of laryngeals is so uncertain, they either colour vowels or disappear entirely. </span><span>/*eh₁/ becomes [eː], /*eh₂/ becomes [aː], and /*eh₃/ becomes [oː]. Similarly, </span><span class="c20">/*h₁e/</span><span> becomes [e], </span><span class="c20">/*h₂e/</span><span> becomes [a], and </span><span class="c20">/*h₃e/</span><span class="c12"> becomes [o]. Laryngeals do colour inherently long vowels as though they were short.</span>


<span class="c12">When any laryngeal begins a word before another consonant, it can become [a] or [ə]. Any laryngeal between consonants can also become [a ~ ə].</span>
=== 1.1.9 *h₄, *hₐ, *H/*hₓ ===


<span class="c12">An alternative and fanciful pronunciation collapses all three laryngeals into one to allow them to be pronounced, as in Anatolian and Persian languages, in addition to being deleted entirely.  This can be written as ⟨H⟩ and pronounced [h], [ħ], or similar. This pronunciation must shorten long vowels.</span>
''*h₄'' and ''*hₐ'' are not frequently included in this document as they appear only within certain analyses of Proto-Indo-European. However, if they should appear, or if speakers should choose to project words on to SAvIE using analyses where these laryngeal values are present, they should be treated exactly the same as ''*h₂'', including all the same vowel colouring of that laryngeal value.


<span class="c12">For the laryngeal which does not colour a vowel, it can also be pronounced as a syllabic consonant, and be written as ⟨H⟩ as expected, or as ⟨H̥⟩ or ⟨Ḥ⟩ to make it absolutely clear that it is a syllabic consonant.</span>
''*H'', also notated ''*hₓ'', indicates an unknown laryngeal. Often this is done because the actual value is contested, or possibly unknowable. SAvIE treats such a laryngeal as though it were ''/*h₁/''. ''/*eH/'' gives ⟨ē⟩, lengthening the vowel without colouring it, while ''/*oH/'' and ''/*uH/'' also lengthen the previous vowel giving ⟨ō⟩ and ⟨ū⟩. ''/*He/'' does not colour /e/ at all, giving ⟨He⟩.


<span id="h.7239rplje0z1"></span>
=== <span class="c63">1.1.9                        *h₄, *hₐ, *H/*hₓ</span> ===


<span class="c20">*h₄</span><span> and </span><span class="c20">*hₐ</span><span> are not frequently included in this document as they appear only within certain analyses of Proto-Indo-European. However, if they should appear, or if speakers should choose to project words on to SAvIE using analyses where these laryngeal values are present, they should be treated exactly the same as </span><span class="c20">*</span><span class="c20">h₂</span><span class="c12">, including all the same vowel colouring of that laryngeal value.</span>
=== 1.1.10 Laryngeals at morpheme boundaries ===


<span class="c20">*H</span><span>, also notated </span><span class="c20">*hₓ</span><span>, indicates an unknown laryngeal. Often this is done because the actual value is contested, or possibly unknowable. SAvIE treats such a laryngeal as though it were </span><span class="c20">/*h₁/</span><span>. </span><span class="c20">/*eH/ </span><span>gives ⟨ē⟩, lengthening the vowel without colouring it, while </span><span class="c20">/*oH/</span><span> and </span><span class="c20">/*uH/</span><span> also lengthen the previous vowel giving ⟨ō⟩ and ⟨ū⟩. </span><span class="c20">/*He/</span><span class="c12"> does not colour /e/ at all, giving ⟨He⟩.</span>
Using the rules defined above for the levelling of Proto-Indo-European laryngeals, the same phonological processes are expected to apply to laryngeals when they could colour vowels at morpheme boundaries. For example, given the root '''céjHₒ-''' (from ''*gʷeyh₃-'') and its thematic suffix '''-eti''', the original '''-h₃-e-''' crossing a morpheme boundary colours as expected, with the resulting verb being '''céjHoti''' “he/she/it lives”.


<span id="h.lh7z0ixv4ak8"></span>
=== <span class="c63">1.1.10                Laryngeals at morpheme boundaries</span> ===


<span>Using the rules defined above for the levelling of Proto-Indo-European laryngeals, the same phonological processes are expected to apply to laryngeals when they could colour vowels at morpheme boundaries. For example, given the root </span><span class="c27">céjHₒ-</span><span> (from </span><span class="c20">*gʷeyh₃-</span><span>) and its thematic suffix </span><span class="c27">-eti</span><span>, the original </span><span class="c27">-h₃-e-</span><span> crossing a morpheme boundary colours as expected, with the resulting verb being </span><span class="c27">céjHoti</span><span> “he/she/it lives”.</span>
=== 1.1.11 Alteration of aspirated stops ===


The aspirated stops ⟨bh⟩ ⟨dh⟩ ⟨gh⟩ ⟨ǵh⟩ ⟨ch⟩ can be devoiced to [pʰ] [tʰ] [kʰ] [kʲʰ] [kʷʰ] for one of two reasons.


-----
Firstly a speaker may choose to pronounce unvoiced stops in order to match a neighbouring unvoiced stop, such as producing the opposite of Bartholomae's law: *bʰewdʰ → *bʰudʰ-tós → (with application of Grassmann's law) *bʰud-dʰós → SAvIE ⟨bhuddhós⟩ [pʰuˈtʰːos].


<span id="h.gkjmnquxlx5i"></span>
Otherwise, a speaker (such as an avid student of Ancient Greek, or perhaps Sanskrit) can choose to pronounce unvoiced stops throughout their speech simply because they wish to match pronunciations of their respective daughter languages of interest.
=== <span class="c63">1.1.11                Alteration of aspirated stops</span> ===


<span class="c12">The aspirated stops ⟨bh⟩ ⟨dh⟩ ⟨gh⟩ ⟨ǵh⟩ ⟨ch⟩ can be devoiced to [pʰ] [tʰ] [kʰ] [kʲʰ] [kʷʰ] for one of two reasons.</span>


<span class="c12">Firstly a speaker may choose to pronounce unvoiced stops in order to match a neighbouring unvoiced stop, such as producing the opposite of Bartholomae's law: *bʰewdʰ → *bʰudʰ-tós → (with application of Grassmann's law) *bʰud-dʰós → SAvIE ⟨bhuddhós⟩ [pʰuˈtʰːos]. </span>
== 1.2 Vowels ==


<span>Otherwise, a speaker (such as an avid student of Ancient Greek, or perhaps Sanskrit) can choose to pronounce unvoiced stops throughout their speech simply because they wish to match pronunciations of their respective daughter languages of interest.</span>


=== 1.2.1 *e, *ē, *o, *ō ===


-----
The basic short vowels of Proto-Indo-European appear as ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩, and can be pronounced in a variety of ways, such as [e] and [o] or [ɛ] and [ɔ]. Their long counterparts appear as ⟨ē⟩ and ⟨ō⟩, and are pronounced as before, but audibly longer.


<span id="h.3mudqsqq1umz"></span>
There is no real restriction on how they should be pronounced, but my personal preference is ⟨e⟩ as [ɛ], ⟨ē⟩ as [eː], ⟨o⟩ as [ɔ], and ⟨ō⟩ as [oː].
== <span class="c41 c16">1.2                        Vowels</span> ==


<span id="h.ae4glav47ro5"></span>
=== <span class="c63">1.2.1                        *e, *ē, *o, *ō</span> ===


<span class="c12">The basic short vowels of Proto-Indo-European appear as ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩, and can be pronounced in a variety of ways, such as [e] and [o] or [ɛ] and [ɔ]. Their long counterparts appear as ⟨ē⟩ and ⟨ō⟩, and are pronounced as before, but audibly longer.</span>
=== 1.2.2 *a, *ā ===


<span class="c12">There is no real restriction on how they should be pronounced, but my personal preference is ⟨e⟩ as [ɛ], ⟨ē⟩ as [eː], ⟨o⟩ as [ɔ], and ⟨ō⟩ as [oː].</span>
These vowels appear as ⟨a⟩ [a] and ⟨ā⟩ [aː]. They are not basic vowels of Proto-Indo-European; ⟨a⟩ appears most often as a realisation of laryngeals between medial or before initial consonants, and ⟨ā⟩ appears as a contraction of /*eh₂/. Rarely /*a/ can appear in root words, but these reconstructions are often debated.


<span id="h.te0h5wlolx5v"></span>
=== <span class="c63">1.2.2                        *a, *ā</span> ===


<span class="c12">These vowels appear as ⟨a⟩ [a] and ⟨ā⟩ [aː]. They are not basic vowels of Proto-Indo-European; ⟨a⟩ appears most often as a realisation of laryngeals between medial or before initial consonants, and ⟨ā⟩ appears as a contraction of /*eh₂/. Rarely /*a/ can appear in root words, but these reconstructions are often debated.</span>
=== 1.2.3 *i, ⟨ī⟩, *u, ⟨ū⟩ ===


<span id="h.1sk80yczinv3"></span>
Only ⟨i⟩ [i] and ⟨u⟩ [u] are inherited from Proto-Indo-European. ⟨ī⟩ [iː] and ⟨ū⟩ [uː] appear as contractions of /*iH/ and /*uH/.
=== <span class="c63">1.2.3                        *i, ⟨ī⟩, *u, ⟨ū⟩</span> ===


<span class="c12">Only ⟨i⟩ [i] and ⟨u⟩ [u] are inherited from Proto-Indo-European. ⟨ī⟩ [iː] and ⟨ū⟩ [uː] appear as contractions of /*iH/ and /*uH/.</span>


<span id="h.ne0xrt6jsbsy"></span>
=== 1.2.4 [ə] ===
=== <span class="c63">1.2.4                        [ə]</span> ===


<span class="c12">A final vowel [ə], the schwa, can be pronounced in SAvIE but ought not to be written. In cases where syllabic sonorants (l̥ r̥ m̥ n̥ H̥) form a cluster with another consonant (such as in the word wl̥qós which is expected to be pronounced [wl̩ˈkʷos]), an epenthetic schwa can be added before the syllabic consonant to aid in pronunciation, thus giving [wəlˈkʷos] for wl̥qós.</span>
A final vowel [ə], the schwa, can be pronounced in SAvIE but ought not to be written. In cases where syllabic sonorants (l̥ r̥ m̥ n̥ H̥) form a cluster with another consonant (such as in the word wl̥qós which is expected to be pronounced [wl̩ˈkʷos]), an epenthetic schwa can be added before the syllabic consonant to aid in pronunciation, thus giving [wəlˈkʷos] for wl̥qós.


<span class="c12">If somebody wants to write the pronounced schwa explicitly, they should use the letters ⟨y⟩, ⟨ə⟩, or the symbol ⟨°⟩, giving ⟨wylqós⟩, ⟨wəlqós⟩, or ⟨w°lqós⟩.</span>
If somebody wants to write the pronounced schwa explicitly, they should use the letters ⟨y⟩, ⟨ə⟩, or the symbol ⟨°⟩, giving ⟨wylqós⟩, ⟨wəlqós⟩, or ⟨w°lqós⟩.


<span id="h.7b1lvacq8dyd"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">1.3                        Stress</span> ==


<span class="c12">SAvIE follows Proto-Indo-European stress rules and it is mandatory to mark stress with an acute accent (á é í ó ú ĺ̥ ŕ̥ ḿ̥ ń̥ H̥́) at all times. When writing using ⟨ə⟩, that letter receives the acute instead, giving ⟨ý ~ ə́⟩.</span>
== 1.3 Stress ==


<span>Long vowels, indicated with a macron, are instead written with a circumflex ⟨â ê î ô û⟩ when stressed.</span>
SAvIE follows Proto-Indo-European stress rules and it is mandatory to mark stress with an acute accent (á é í ó ú ĺ̥ ŕ̥ ḿ̥ ń̥ H̥́) at all times. When writing using ⟨ə⟩, that letter receives the acute instead, giving ⟨ý ~ ə́⟩.


Long vowels, indicated with a macron, are instead written with a circumflex ⟨â ê î ô û⟩ when stressed.


-----
In addition, SAvIE has rules relating to the stress of compounds. These can be either ''close'' or ''loose''. Close compounds are written as one word, using a stem form of one word and a full form of another. Loose compounds are written as two separate words with the first word in the genitive case without displaying declension, and the second word being fully declinable.


<span>In addition, SAvIE has rules relating to the stress of compounds. These can be either </span><span class="c20">close</span><span> or </span><span class="c20">loose</span><span class="c12">. Close compounds are written as one word, using a stem form of one word and a full form of another. Loose compounds are written as two separate words with the first word in the genitive case without displaying declension, and the second word being fully declinable.</span>
In close compounds, often the first element is stressed, but the second may receive stress in some words, and receives the only stress in the word. In loose compounds, the second element is stressed, and the first can optionally be written without stress marking. Often, words can be written as either type of compound, but they usually appear as only one; for example, '''ghóstipotis''' “lord” is a close compound, and can be written, following the correct conventions of stress, as a loose compound '''ghostejs pótis''', specifically avoiding stress marking on the first element.


<span>In close compounds, often the first element is stressed, but the second may receive stress in some words, and receives the only stress in the word. In loose compounds, the second element is stressed, and the first can optionally be written without stress marking. Often, words can be written as either type of compound, but they usually appear as only one; for example, </span><span class="c27">ghóstipotis</span><span> “lord” is a close compound, and can be written, following the correct conventions of stress, as a loose compound </span><span class="c27">ghostejs pótis</span><span class="c12">, specifically avoiding stress marking on the first element.</span>
Optionally, rather than refraining from marking stress entirely, a grave accent ⟨ ̀⟩ can be used on the first word to indicate secondary stress, such as '''ghostèjs pótis'''.


<span>Optionally, rather than refraining from marking stress entirely, a grave accent ⟨  ̀⟩ can be used on the first word to indicate secondary stress, such as </span><span class="c27">ghostèjs pótis</span><span>.</span>


= 2 Major features of SAE =


-----


<span id="h.n8ma65fq4kqv"></span>
== 2.1 Definite and indefinite articles ==
= <span class="c89 c109">2                        Major features of SAE</span> =


<span id="h.pyaazyjs8t8p"></span>
The definite article is '''so'''. The indefinite article is '''Hójwos''', a variant of '''Hójnos''' &quot;one&quot; (from ''*h₁óynos)''.
== <span>2</span><span class="c27">.1                        Definite </span><span>and </span><span class="c27">indefinite articles</span> ==


<span>The definite article is </span><span class="c27">so</span><span>. The indefinite article is </span><span class="c27">Hójwos</span><span>, a variant of </span><span class="c27">Hójnos</span><span> &quot;one&quot; (from </span><span class="c20">*h₁óynos)</span><span class="c12">.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
== 2.2 Relative clauses with relative pronouns ==


<span id="h.2kj0ufj26kkt"></span>
The pronoun '''jos''' can be used to introduce relative clauses, but alternatively any correlative word can be used in a relative sense.
== <span>2</span><span>.2                        Relative clauses with relative pronouns</span> ==


<span>The pronoun </span><span class="c27">jos</span><span class="c12"> can be used to introduce relative clauses, but alternatively any correlative word can be used in a relative sense.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
== 2.3 &quot;Have&quot;-perfect ==


<span id="h.kbmbful0drti"></span>
SAvIE can use the word '''kápes''', a derivative of ''*kap-'' &quot;to seize, hold&quot; (which gives Latin ''capiō'' and English ''have''), to form a perfect tense with the participle '''-tós'''/'''-tâ'''/'''-tóm''' of a verb.
== <span class="c41 c16">2.3                        &quot;Have&quot;-perfect</span> ==


<span>SAvIE can use the word </span><span class="c27">kápes</span><span>, a derivative of</span><span class="c27"> </span><span class="c20">*kap-</span><span> &quot;to seize, hold&quot; (which gives Latin </span><span class="c20">capiō</span><span> and English </span><span class="c20">have</span><span>), to form a perfect tense with the participle </span><span class="c27">-tós</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-tâ</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-tóm</span><span class="c12"> of a verb.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
== 2.4 Nominative experiencers ==


<span id="h.9de6b64m47pw"></span>
Instead of using dative constructions, there can either be a nominative-active-accusative or nominative-deponent-ablative use of the word '''bhrūgéti''' ''to enjoy, to like'' (from ''*bʰruHg-e-ti'') with a semantic patient.
== <span class="c41 c16">2.4                        Nominative experiencers</span> ==


<span>Instead of using dative constructions, there can either be a nominative-active-accusative or nominative-deponent-ablative use of the word </span><span class="c27">bhrūgéti</span><span class="c20"> to enjoy, to like</span><span> (from </span><span class="c20">*bʰruHg-e-ti</span><span class="c12">) with a semantic patient.</span>


<span id="h.yjuncj3cd7ic"></span>
== 2.5 Participial passive ==
== <span class="c41 c16">2.5                        Participial passive</span> ==


<span>Instead of using a conjugated passive, the periphrastic passive is formed with the verb H</span><span class="c27">ésti</span><span> &quot;to be&quot; and a passive participle ending in </span><span class="c27">-(o)mHnos</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-(o)mHnā</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-(o)mHnom</span><span>.</span>
Instead of using a conjugated passive, the periphrastic passive is formed with the verb H'''ésti''' &quot;to be&quot; and a passive participle ending in '''-(o)mHnos'''/'''-(o)mHnā'''/'''-(o)mHnom'''.




-----
== 2.6 Anticausative prominence ==


<span id="h.xpl4w3rp6gaj"></span>
Verbs can be implicitly anticausative if a transitive verb is used in anF intransitive sense, with its patient as its subject; for example '''éǵ bhrêgsm̥ íd''' &quot;I broke it&quot;, but '''íd bhrêgst''' &quot;it broke&quot;. Optionally the reflexive particle can be used on either side of the salient verb, giving '''íd bhrêgst s(w)é''' or '''íd s(w)é bhrêgst'''.
== <span class="c41 c16">2.6                        Anticausative prominence</span> ==


<span>Verbs can be implicitly anticausative if a transitive verb is used in anF intransitive sense, with its patient as its subject; for example </span><span class="c27">éǵ bhrêgsm̥ íd </span><span>&quot;I broke it&quot;, but </span><span class="c27">íd bhrêgst</span><span> &quot;it broke&quot;. Optionally the reflexive particle can be used on either side of the salient verb, giving </span><span class="c27">íd bhrêgst s(w)é </span><span>or </span><span class="c27">íd s(w)é bhrêgst</span><span class="c12">.</span>


<span id="h.or9fr0p9pai8"></span>
== 2.7 Dative external possessors ==
== <span class="c41 c16">2.7                        Dative external possessors</span> ==


<span>The dative can be used to indicate the possessor of the object of an action instead of using a genitive phrase: </span><span class="c27">î léwHeti ésyās sūnéwej tód ǵónu </span><span>&quot;she washes her son's knee&quot;, though literally &quot;she washes </span><span class="c20">to her son</span><span class="c12"> the knee&quot;.</span>
The dative can be used to indicate the possessor of the object of an action instead of using a genitive phrase: '''î léwHeti ésyās sūnéwej tód ǵónu''' &quot;she washes her son's knee&quot;, though literally &quot;she washes ''to her son'' the knee&quot;.


<span id="h.rx85ai3kp8ts"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">2.8                        Negative pronouns and lack of negation</span> ==


<span>In phrasing e.g. &quot;nobody comes&quot;, English-like phraseology should be used: there should be a negative pronoun with no negation of the verb, giving </span><span class="c27">neqís cémt </span><span class="c12">&quot;nobody came&quot;.</span>
== 2.8 Negative pronouns and lack of negation ==


<span id="h.slozp63i4vt1"></span>
In phrasing e.g. &quot;nobody comes&quot;, English-like phraseology should be used: there should be a negative pronoun with no negation of the verb, giving '''neqís cémt''' &quot;nobody came&quot;.
== <span class="c41 c16">2.9                        Particles in comparative constructions</span> ==


<span>Either of the particles </span><span class="c27">Hapó</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">Hánti</span><span> should be used to compare against a referent in the accusative: </span><span class="c27">ís Hesti mājoteros Hapó/Hánti (H)mé</span><span class="c12"> &quot;he is bigger than me&quot;.</span>


<span id="h.4c51oqnhjhsq"></span>
== 2.9 Particles in comparative constructions ==
== <span class="c41 c16">2.10                        Relative-based equative constructions</span> ==


<span>The adjective </span><span class="c27">sokós</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">sokâ</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">tokóm</span><span> is used for &quot;as&quot; or &quot;such&quot; (giving </span><span class="c27">sokós méǵHs</span><span> &quot;so large&quot;). The comparative element is introduced with </span><span class="c27">ḱom</span><span> &quot;with&quot; with the predicate in the accusative, resulting in </span><span class="c27">ís ésti sokós méǵHs ḱom îm̥</span><span class="c12"> &quot;he is as large as her&quot;.</span>
Either of the particles '''Hapó''' or '''Hánti''' should be used to compare against a referent in the accusative: '''ís Hesti mājoteros Hapó/Hánti (H)mé''' &quot;he is bigger than me&quot;.


<span id="h.hdt0cyj1sj23"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">2.11                        Subject person affixes as strict agreement markers</span> ==


<span>This feature refers to obligatory subject-pronoun agreement with a conjugated verb. It is not widespread so it is unclear why this is included as a SAE feature. So, in SAvIE, this is an optional feature; both </span><span class="c27">Hésmi</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">éǵH Hésmi</span><span> are equivalent terms for &quot;I am&quot;.</span>
== 2.10 Relative-based equative constructions ==


The adjective '''sokós'''/'''sokâ'''/'''tokóm''' is used for &quot;as&quot; or &quot;such&quot; (giving '''sokós méǵHs''' &quot;so large&quot;). The comparative element is introduced with '''ḱom''' &quot;with&quot; with the predicate in the accusative, resulting in '''ís ésti sokós méǵHs ḱom îm̥''' &quot;he is as large as her&quot;.


-----


<span id="h.2yponpa24cmy"></span>
== 2.11 Subject person affixes as strict agreement markers ==
== <span class="c41 c16">2.12                        Intensifier-reflexive differentiation</span> ==


<span>SAvIE distinguishes between an intensifying adjectives </span><span class="c27">somHós</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-â</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-óm</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">sélbhos</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-â</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-óm</span><span>, and the true reflexive particle </span><span class="c27">s(w)é</span><span class="c12">; the former does not necessarily indicate reflexive action, but intensifies a previous nominal, while the latter is explicitly reflexive or reciprocal.</span>
This feature refers to obligatory subject-pronoun agreement with a conjugated verb. It is not widespread so it is unclear why this is included as a SAE feature. So, in SAvIE, this is an optional feature; both '''Hésmi''' and '''éǵH Hésmi''' are equivalent terms for &quot;I am&quot;.


<span id="h.tmq8zrnfthnk"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">3                        Further SAE-aligned features</span> =


<span>The features below appear in some members of SAE, so can be used optionally in SAvIE too.</span>
== 2.12 Intensifier-reflexive differentiation ==


<span id="h.w55u3od4ie17"></span>
SAvIE distinguishes between an intensifying adjectives '''somHós'''/'''-â'''/'''-óm''' or '''sélbhos'''/'''-â'''/'''-óm''', and the true reflexive particle '''s(w)é'''; the former does not necessarily indicate reflexive action, but intensifies a previous nominal, while the latter is explicitly reflexive or reciprocal.
== <span class="c41 c16">3.1                        Verb fronting in polar interrogatives</span> ==


<span>SAvIE polar yes/no questions can front the questioning verb, so </span><span class="c27">éǵH Hésmi</span><span> can become </span><span class="c27">Hésmi éǵH?</span>


<span id="h.l0s5mylmfuqr"></span>
= 3 Further SAE-aligned features =
== <span class="c41 c16">3.2                        Comparative marking of adjectives</span> ==


<span>As seen above in the comparative adjective </span><span class="c27">māyóteros</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-ā</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-om</span><span>, the suffix </span><span class="c27">-teros</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-ā</span><span>/</span><span class="c27">-om </span><span class="c12">is the comparative (as well as contrastive) adjectival suffix.</span>
The features below appear in some members of SAE, so can be used optionally in SAvIE too.


<span id="h.q1vbzgzu4pp"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">3.3                        Comitative-instrumental syncretism</span> ==


<span>In this feature there is no difference between &quot;with&quot; in the comitative (&quot;in the company of&quot;) sense, and in the instrumental (&quot;using, by means of&quot;) sense. Both of the words </span><span class="c27">me</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">ḱóm</span><span> can be used to mean &quot;with&quot; in either sense.</span>
== 3.1 Verb fronting in polar interrogatives ==


SAvIE polar yes/no questions can front the questioning verb, so '''éǵH Hésmi''' can become '''Hésmi éǵH?'''


-----


<span id="h.l6hpotz4rjnm"></span>
== 3.2 Comparative marking of adjectives ==
= <span class="c89 c109">4                        Nominals</span> =


<span class="c12">This category includes nouns and pronouns, both of which are declined in much the same way.</span>
As seen above in the comparative adjective '''māyóteros'''/'''-ā'''/'''-om''', the suffix '''-teros'''/'''-ā'''/'''-om''' is the comparative (as well as contrastive) adjectival suffix.


<span>They are declined in two numbers, the </span><span class="c27">singular </span><span>and </span><span class="c27">plural</span><span>; six cases, the </span><span class="c27">nominative</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">vocative</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">accusative</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">genitive</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">dative</span><span>, and </span><span class="c27">locative</span><span>; and in one of three genders, </span><span class="c27">masculine</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">feminine</span><span>, or </span><span class="c27">neuter</span><span class="c12">.</span>


<span id="h.mpapi1a96ctb"></span>
== 3.3 Comitative-instrumental syncretism ==
== <span class="c41 c16">4.1                        Personal pronouns</span> ==


<span class="c12">These decline in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons singular and plural in all cases except the locative. They also have dedicated adjectival forms, which are used for the possessive.</span>
In this feature there is no difference between &quot;with&quot; in the comitative (&quot;in the company of&quot;) sense, and in the instrumental (&quot;using, by means of&quot;) sense. Both of the words '''me''' and '''ḱóm''' can be used to mean &quot;with&quot; in either sense.


<span class="c12"></span>


<span class="c12">Nominative</span>
= 4 Nominals =


<span class="c122 c120">Accusative</span>
This category includes nouns and pronouns, both of which are declined in much the same way.


<span class="c22 c120">Genitive</span>
They are declined in two numbers, the '''singular''' and '''plural'''; six cases, the '''nominative''', '''vocative''', '''accusative''', '''genitive''', '''dative''', and '''locative'''; and in one of three genders, '''masculine''', '''feminine''', or '''neuter'''.


<span class="c102 c120">Dative</span>


<span class="c119 c142">Locative</span>
== 4.1 Personal pronouns ==


<span class="c123 c120 c99 c142">Adjective</span>
These decline in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons singular and plural in all cases except the locative. They also have dedicated adjectival forms, which are used for the possessive.


<span class="c15 c16">1st singular</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="text-align: left;"|
! style="text-align: left;"| Nominative
! style="text-align: left;"| Accusative
! style="text-align: left;"| Genitive
! style="text-align: left;"| Dative
! style="text-align: left;"| Locative
! style="text-align: left;"| Adjective
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st singular'''
| style="text-align: center;"| éǵ


<span class="c12">éǵ</span>
eǵóm


<span class="c12">eǵóm</span>
éǵō


<span class="c12">éǵō</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| mé
| style="text-align: center;"| méne


<span class="c12">mé</span>
mój


<span class="c12">méne</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| méǵhjo
| style="text-align: center;"| mój
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)mós


<span class="c12">mój</span>
/-â


<span class="c12">méǵhjo</span>
/-óm


<span class="c12">mój</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd singular'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tû
| style="text-align: center;"| twé
| style="text-align: center;"| téwe


<span class="c12">(H)mós</span>
tój


<span class="c12">/-â</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| tébhi


<span class="c12">/-óm</span>
tébhjo


<span class="c15 c16">2nd singular</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| tój
| style="text-align: center;"| twós


<span class="c12">tû</span>
/-â


<span class="c12">twé</span>
/-óm


<span class="c12">téwe</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular'''


<span class="c12">tój</span>
'''masculine'''


<span class="c12">tébhi</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ís


<span class="c12">tébhjo</span>
éj


<span class="c12">tój</span>
Hé


<span class="c12">twós</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ím
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ésjo


<span class="c12">/-â</span>
Héso


<span class="c12">/-óm</span>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ésmej


<span class="c15 c16">3rd singular</span>
Hésmōj


<span class="c15 c16">masculine</span>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (H)ésmi
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| (


<span class="c12">ís</span>
swós


<span class="c12">éj</span>
/-â


<span class="c12">Hé</span>
/-óm


<span class="c12">ím</span>
)


<span class="c12">ésjo</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular neuter'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| íd
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular feminine'''
| style="text-align: center;"| î
| style="text-align: center;"| îm̥
| style="text-align: center;"| ésjās
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)ésjāi
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)ésjā(i)
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st plural'''
| style="text-align: center;"| wéj
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥smé
| style="text-align: center;"| nos
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥sméj


<span class="c12">Héso</span>
n̥s


<span class="c12">ésmej</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥smi
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥sós


<span class="c12">Hésmōj</span>
/-â


<span class="c12">(H)ésmi</span>
/-óm


<span class="c12">(</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd plural'''
| style="text-align: center;"| jû
| style="text-align: center;"| usmé


<span class="c12">swós</span>
wôs


<span class="c12">/-â</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| wos
| style="text-align: center;"| usméj
| style="text-align: center;"| usmi
| style="text-align: center;"| usós


<span class="c12">/-óm</span>
/-â


<span class="c12">)</span>
/-óm


<span class="c15 c16">3rd singular neuter</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural masculine'''
| style="text-align: center;"| éjes
| style="text-align: center;"| íns
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| éjsom


<span class="c12">íd</span>
éjsōm


<span class="c15 c16">3rd singular feminine</span>
Hésom


<span class="c12">î</span>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (H)éjmos


<span class="c12">îm̥</span>
éjbhos


<span class="c12">ésjās</span>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (H)éjsu
| style="text-align: center;"|
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural neuter'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| î
| style="text-align: center;"|
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural feminine'''
| style="text-align: center;"| îes
| style="text-align: center;"| îm̥s


<span class="c12"></span>
în̥s


<span class="c12">(H)ésjāi</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| îsōm


<span class="c12">(H)ésjā(i)</span>
éjsom


<span class="c15 c16">1st plural</span>
Hésom


<span class="c12">wéj</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| îmos


<span class="c12">n̥smé</span>
(H)éjmos


<span class="c12">nos</span>
éjbhos


<span class="c12">n̥sméj</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| îsu


<span class="c12">n̥s</span>
(H)éjsu


<span class="c12">n̥smi</span>
| style="text-align: center;"|
|}
 
In addition to the above possessive adjectives '''mós''', '''tós''', etc. alternative forms from daughter languages can be used, including '''(H)méjnos ~ -ā ~ -om''' (as in Proto-Germanic ''*mīnaz''), '''mójos ~ -ā ~ -om''' (as Proto-Slavic ''*mojь''), and '''méjos ~ -ā ~ -om''' (assuming potentially that the Latin form ''meus'' represents the dative '''méj''' with adjectival ending). Internally constructed forms include '''méwos ~ -ā ~ -om''', formed using the oblique stem with adjectival ending, or the indeclinable genitive '''(H)méne'''.


<span class="c12">n̥sós</span>


<span class="c12">/-â</span>
== 4.2 Personal correlative and relative ==


<span class="c12">/-óm</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| qís
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qím
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qés(j)o
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qésmej
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qésmi
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| qís


<span class="c15 c16">2nd plural</span>
qé


<span class="c12">jû</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. sg.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qíd
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. pl.'''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qéjes
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qíms
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qéjsom
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qéjmos


<span class="c12">usmé</span>
qéjbhos


<span class="c12">wôs</span>
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qéjsu
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. pl.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qî
|}


<span class="c12">wos</span>
The above can be used as an independent pronoun, as in '''qís cémt?''' &quot;Who came?&quot;


<span class="c12">usméj</span>
In other contexts it can be used as a relative pronoun, such as in '''kápmi Hábōl qim bhrûghō''' &quot;I have an apple which I like&quot;.


<span class="c12">usmi</span>
The difference between the two is that the pronoun form is stressed, but the relative form is not.


<span class="c12">usós</span>


<span class="c12">/-â</span>
== 4.3 Proximal pronoun and determiner, and article ==


<span class="c12">/-óm</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| só
| style="text-align: center;"| tóm
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tósjo
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tósmej
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tósmi
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. sg.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tód
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| sā
| style="text-align: center;"| tâm
| style="text-align: center;"| tósjās
| style="text-align: center;"| tósjāj
| style="text-align: center;"| tósjā
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tój
| style="text-align: center;"| tóms
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tójsōm
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tójmos


<span class="c15 c16">3rd plural masculine</span>
tójbhos


<span class="c12">éjes</span>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tójsu
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. pl.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tâ
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tâs
| style="text-align: center;"| tâm̥s
| style="text-align: center;"| tâsōm
| style="text-align: center;"| tâmos


<span class="c12">íns</span>
tâbhos


<span class="c12">éjsom</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| tâsu
|}


<span class="c12">éjsōm</span>
The above are used as both determiners for other nouns; when in need of a pronoun the form '''ḱíd''' is used instead: '''ḱíd Hésti Hwésu''' &quot;this is good&quot;, and '''só Hnêr Hésti Hwésus''' &quot;this man is good&quot;. '''só''' can also be used as an article, and so the latter sentence can be translated as &quot;''the'' man is good&quot;.


<span class="c12">Hésom</span>


<span class="c12">(H)éjmos</span>
== 4.4 Distal pronoun and determiner ==


<span class="c12">éjbhos</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénos


<span class="c12">(H)éjsu</span>
Hónos


<span class="c12"></span>
Hnós


<span class="c15 c16">3rd plural neuter</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénom
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjo
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénosmej
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénosmi
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. sg.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénod
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénā
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénām
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjās
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjāej
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjā
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénoj
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénoms
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénojsōm
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénojmos


<span class="c12">î</span>
/-bhos


<span class="c12"></span>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénojsu
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. pl.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénā
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénās
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénām̥s
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāsōm
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāmos


<span class="c15 c16">3rd plural feminine</span>
/-bhos


<span class="c12">îes</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāsu
|}


<span class="c12">îm̥s</span>
There are multiple forms given in the first cell because the root can be reconstructed in each of those forms, all of which can be used as the basis for this demonstrative.


<span class="c12">în̥s</span>
As with '''so''', '''Hénos''' is used as a determiner, with its independent pronominal form being '''ḱênos''': '''ḱênod Hésti Hwésu''' &quot;that is good&quot;, and '''Hénos Hnêr Hésti Hwésus''' &quot;that man is good&quot;.


<span class="c12">îsōm</span>


<span class="c12">éjsom</span>
== 4.5 Nouns and noun declension ==


<span class="c12">Hésom</span>
Proto-Indo-European had somewhat complex noun declensions, which are carried over to SAvIE. As with pronouns, common nouns decline in the singular and plural, but also in the vocative to give six cases.


<span class="c12">îmos</span>
The pattern which is seen in many noun declensions is given below.


<span class="c12">(H)éjmos</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Athematic
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -s ~ -∅
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| -∅
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -es
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| *-h₂
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Vocative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -∅
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -m̥
| style="text-align: center;"| -m̥s
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -s ~ -(e/o)s
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ej
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -bhos


<span class="c12">éjbhos</span>
-mos


<span class="c12">îsu</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -i, -∅
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -su
|}


<span class="c12">(H)éjsu</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Thematic
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -os
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| -om
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōs
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| -ā
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Vocative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -e
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -om
| style="text-align: center;"| -oms
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -osjo


<span class="c12"></span>
-ī<ref>-ī is seen in Italic and Celtic</ref>


<span class="c12"></span>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōj (← -oej)
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -o(j)bhos


<span>In addition to the above possessive adjectives </span><span class="c27">mós</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">tós</span><span>, etc. alternative forms from daughter languages can be used, including </span><span class="c27">(H)méjnos ~ -ā ~ -om</span><span> (as in Proto-Germanic </span><span class="c20">*mīnaz</span><span>), </span><span class="c27">mójos ~ -ā ~ -om</span><span> (as Proto-Slavic </span><span class="c20">*mojь</span><span>), and </span><span class="c27">méjos ~ -ā ~ -om</span><span> (assuming potentially that the Latin form </span><span class="c20">meus</span><span> represents the dative </span><span class="c27">méj</span><span> with adjectival ending). Internally constructed forms include </span><span class="c27">méwos ~ -ā ~ -om</span><span>, formed using the oblique stem with adjectival ending, or the indeclinable genitive </span><span class="c27">(H)méne</span><span>. </span>
-o(j)mos


|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -oj ~ -ej
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ojsu
|}


-----
This only applies to masculine and neuter nouns, as noted in the tables above. Feminine nouns usually conform to the following:


<span id="h.i1ldaces8rl6"></span>
{| class="wikitable"
== <span class="c41 c16">4.2                        Personal correlative and relative</span> ==
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| Thematic
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''-ā type'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''-ī type'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ā
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ās (← -āes)
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ī
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-īs (← -īes)
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Vocative'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ām
| style="text-align: center;"| -ām̥s
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-īm̥
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-īm̥s
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ās
| style="text-align: center;"| -āōm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâōm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -āj (← -āej)
| style="text-align: center;"| -ābhos


<span class="c12"></span>
-āmos


{| class="wikitable c11"
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâj (← -jâej)
|- class="c14"
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâbhos
| class="c42"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative</span>
(∅)-jâmos


| class="c42"| <span class="c122 c16">Accusative</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ā(i)
| style="text-align: center;"| -āsu
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâ(i)
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâsu
|}


| class="c42"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive</span>
ī-type nouns retain a fixed stress-ablaut pattern, whereas ā-type nouns are much more flexible; these can be o-grade with stress on the ending, e-grade with shifting stress, or zero-grade with stress on the ending.


| class="c42"| <span class="c102 c16">Dative</span>
Many noun declensions are a variation on the above patterns. Some common variations are as follows.


| class="c42"| <span class="c123 c135 c16">Locative</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 4.5.1 -mn̥, -mō, -mên ===
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">masc. sg.</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">qís</span>
These endings all look very similar to each other, and fulfil relatively similar functions. '''-mn̥''' creates neuter result nouns, while '''-mō''' and '''-mên''' create masculine agent nouns. There is no appreciable difference in meaning between '''-mō''' and '''-mên'''; they are both included to use freely when they appear in cognates among daughter languages.


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">qím</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-mn̥'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-mō'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-mên'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mn̥
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mō
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mên
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-méns
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-m̥nés
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mō
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mones
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ménes
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-m̥nés
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-m̥nôm
|}


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">qés(j)o</span>


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">qésmej</span>
=== 4.5.2 -tōr, -têr, -trī ===


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">qésmi</span>
These endings derived masculine, masculine, and feminine agent noun endings.


|- class="c17"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">fem. sg.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-tōr'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-têr'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-trī'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tōr
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-têr
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trī
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-trés
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tr̥jâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tores
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téres
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trīs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-trôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tr̥jâōm
|}


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">qís</span>


<span class="c12">qé</span>
=== 4.5.3 -trom, -tlom, -dhrom, -dhlom ===


|- class="c17"
This is a variation of 4.5.2, all of which produce neuter nouns of tools or instruments. There is no difference between forms with '''-r-''' and forms with '''-l-'''; however, the forms beginning '''-dh-''' are used after roots ending in a laryngeal, whether deleted or not, and '''-t-''' is used otherwise. They are all conjugated in the exact same way, so only the conjugation for '''-trom''' is given below.
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">neut. sg.</span>


| class="c111 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">qíd</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-trom'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trom
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trosyo


|- class="c17"
(é)-trī
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">masc. pl.</span>


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">qéjes</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trā
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trōm
|}


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">qíms</span>


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">qéjsom</span>
=== 4.5.4 -ō, -Hₒō ===


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">qéjmos</span>
These are called ''nasal'' suffixes, because in each case but the nominative, ⟨n⟩ appears in the suffix. '''-ō''' creates masculine ''participant'' nouns; these are ones which indicate a person or thing which does something, or exists as the result of an action, such as '''skérō''' &quot;meat&quot; from ''*(s)kér-'' &quot;to cut&quot;, with the resulting meaning being &quot;something cut&quot;. A derivative of those, '''-Honos / -ā / -om''', is used to create augmentative nouns.


<span class="c12">qéjbhos</span>
-Hō is similar; it produces nouns and adjectives of all genders to create words which indicate possession of a certain quality, or a responsibility for carrying out or responsibility to carry out a certain action, like '''pl̥tHús''' &quot;wide, broad&quot; becoming '''Pĺ̥tHō''' &quot;Plato&quot;, originally meaning &quot;wide/broad one&quot;. It is assumed to be formed from Proto-Indo-European ''*-h₃en(h₂)-'', and colours vowels accordingly (by -h₃-).


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">qéjsu</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''ō masculine'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hₒō masculine'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hₒō neuter'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hₒō feminine'''
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-ō'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-Hₒō'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-Hₒon'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-Hₒónī'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hō
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hon
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hónī
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-nés
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hnés
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Honjâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ones
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hones
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hō
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hónīs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-nôm
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hnôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hn̥jâōm
|}


|- class="c17"
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">fem. pl.</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 4.5.5 -r̥, -mr̥, -sr̥, -tr̥, -wr̥ ===
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">neut. pl.</span>


| class="c0" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">qî</span>
These all belong to and are declined exactly as the basic ending '''-r̥''', which is rare and unproductive. It produces very few basic neuter nouns.


{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-r̥'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-r̥
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-n̥s
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-r̥H
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-nōm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative coll.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ōr
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive coll.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-nés
|}
|}


<span class="c12"></span>
This ending is exceptional in having a collective number, which is grammatically plural. So, '''tâ wédōr''' means “the collective of all waters”, whereas '''tâ wódr̥H''' means “the (particular, definite, definable, countable) waters”.


<span>The above can be used as an independent pronoun, as in </span><span class="c27">qís cémt? </span><span class="c12">&quot;Who came?&quot;</span>


<span>In other contexts it can be used as a relative pronoun, such as in </span><span class="c27">kápmi Hábōl qim bhrûghō </span><span class="c12">&quot;I have an apple which I like&quot;.</span>
=== 4.5.6 -tus ===


<span>The difference between the two is that the pronoun form is stressed, but the relative form is not.</span>
This suffix produces masculine action nouns from verb roots.


{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-tus'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tus
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téws
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tewes
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téwōm
|}


-----


<span id="h.rufo2immy9w"></span>
=== 4.5.7 -is, -tis ===
== <span class="c41 c16">4.3                        Proximal pronoun and determiner, and article</span> ==


<span class="c12"></span>
'''-is''' produces ''common gender'' nouns, that is, those which can be either masculine or feminine. It is not shown with an ablaut pattern because it can be used with multiple, including '''(é)-is''' or '''(ó)-is'''. It also has the neuter form '''-i'''. '''-tis''' produces exclusively feminine action or abstract nouns.


{| class="wikitable c11"
{| class="wikitable"
|- class="c14"
|-
| class="c42"| <span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-is'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-tis'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -is, -i
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tis
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ejs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téjs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ejes, -ejH
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tejes
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ejōm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téjōm
|}


| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative</span>


| class="c42"| <span class="c16 c122">Accusative</span>
=== 4.5.8 Agentive and resultative -os ===


| class="c42"| <span class="c16 c22">Genitive</span>
Nouns with the pattern (o)-ós create masculine agent nouns denoting someone or something which performs a related action, such as '''tomHós''' &quot;cutter, slicer&quot;, from the verb '''tm̥nês''' (← ''tm̥-né-h₁-es'') &quot;to slice, to section, to cut up&quot;. When the stress shifts on to the root vowel, this produces a related result noun, '''tómHos''' &quot;a cut, a slice&quot;. Both of these noun patterns do not shift stress or ablaut within their own paradigm (giving '''tomHósjo''' &quot;of a/the cutter&quot; and '''tómHosjo''' &quot;of a/the slice&quot;).


| class="c42"| <span class="c16 c102">Dative</span>


| class="c42"| <span class="c123 c135 c16">Locative</span>
=== 4.5.9 -snā ===


|- class="c17"
The ending '''-snā''' is attached usually to verb stems to indicate either a result noun or a noun indicating the a summary of a category, for example converting '''tétḱes''' &quot;to create, produce&quot; into '''tétḱsnā''' &quot;art, craft&quot;.
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">masc. sg.</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">só</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-snā'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snā
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snās
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snās
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snāōm
|}


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">tóm</span>


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">tósjo</span>
=== 4.5.10 -sōr ===


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">tósmej</span>
'''-sōr''' is similar to '''-trī''' in that it produces feminine gender agentive nouns.


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">tósmi</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-sōr'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sōr
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-srés
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sores
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-srôm
|}


|- class="c17"
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">neut. sg.</span>


| class="c111 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">tód</span>
=== 4.5.11 -(n)â ===


|- class="c17"
The pattern '''(o)-â''' creates collective or mass nouns, or abstract or action nouns. This conjugates exactly as the thematic ''ā''-type is expected to. This can also appear as '''(∅)-â''', with the exact same meaning.
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">fem. sg.</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">sā</span>
A slight extension of this is the pattern '''(o)-nâ''' also creating a deverbal abstract noun.


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">tâm</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">tósjās</span>
=== 4.5.12 -iā ===


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">tósjāj</span>
This is a variation of the feminine ending -ā augmented with -i-, used to create feminine abstract nouns.


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">tósjā</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 4.5.A Combination of suffixes ===
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">masc. pl.</span>


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">tój</span>
Evidence suggests that some of the above suffixes were combined for various purposes. One example is 4.5.7 with 4.5.4: where '''-tis''' could be combined with '''-Hō''' to give '''-tīō''', giving Latin ''-tiō'' and Proto-Celtic ''-tiyū''; '''-tīō''' for example can be used to produce nouns of action or result.


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">tóms</span>


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">tójsōm</span>
== 4.6 Adjectives ==


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">tójmos</span>
Adjectives decline in all three genders, two numbers, and six cases. Their deeclensions follow many of the same patterns that nouns do. In particular, they follow athematic ('''méǵHs ~ m̥ǵHés''', '''méǵHī ~ méǵHīs''', '''méǵH ~ méǵH''' &quot;great, large&quot;) or thematic ('''néwos ~ néwes''', '''néwā ~ néwās''', '''néwom ~ néwā''' &quot;new&quot;) paradigms using a mixture of the basic masculine-, feminine- and neuter-gender endings given above.


<span class="c12">tójbhos</span>
Other adjectival formations are as follows.


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">tójsu</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 4.6.1 Caland system: -onts, -us ===
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">neut. pl.</span>


| class="c0" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">tâ</span>
The Caland system defines reproducible adjectival paradigms and their root forms for creating basic adjectives. Two common endings are -onts and -us, which ablaut as follows.


|- class="c17"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">fem. pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-onts'''


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">tâs</span>
'''Nominative'''


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">tâm̥s</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onts
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ont
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntī
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ontes
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ontH
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntīs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-onts'''


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">tâsōm</span>
'''Genitive'''


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">tâmos</span>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tés
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tjâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tjâōm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-us'''


<span class="c12">tâbhos</span>
'''Nominative'''


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">tâsu</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-us
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-u
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwī
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ewes
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ū
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwīs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-us'''


'''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éws
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ujâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwōm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ujâōm
|}
|}


<span class="c12"></span>
Although displaying somewhat idiosyncratic ablaut, these declensions are identical to the athematic endings given in '''4.5'''.


<span>The above are used as both determiners for other nouns; when in need of a pronoun the form </span><span class="c27">ḱíd</span><span> is used instead: </span><span class="c27">ḱíd Hésti Hwésu</span><span> &quot;this is good&quot;, and </span><span class="c27">só Hnêr Hésti Hwésus</span><span> &quot;this man is good&quot;. </span><span class="c27">só</span><span> can also be used as an article, and so the latter sentence can be translated as &quot;</span><span class="c20">the</span><span> man is good&quot;.</span>


=== 4.6.2 ''Bahuvrihis'': -ēs ===


-----
A ''bahuvrihi'' is a compound word formation indicating possession of a certain quality, or execution of a certain action. These can either be adjectives or nouns in all genders. Its underlying form is ''*-es-s'', due to which it also follows the athematic pattern.


<span id="h.bf0thym6spy6"></span>
The gendered forms are combined, giving a ''common-gender'' form.
== <span class="c41 c16">4.4                        Distal pronoun and determiner</span> ==


<span class="c12"></span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cmn. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cmn. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēs
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-es
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eses
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esos
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esōm
|}


{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c42"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative</span>
=== 4.6.3 Pertinence to a quality: -wénts ===


| class="c42"| <span class="c122 c16">Accusative</span>
-wénts creates adjectives which indicate possession of a certain noun as a quality, or pertinence to that noun as a salient description, like '''Hn̥twént''' &quot;limited&quot;.


| class="c42"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wénts
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wént
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntī
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntes
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntH
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntīs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tés
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tjâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tjâōm
|}


| class="c42"| <span class="c102 c16">Dative</span>


| class="c42"| <span class="c123 c135 c16">Locative</span>
=== 4.6.4 Characteristic or typical of: -ískos, -ānos ===


|- class="c17"
These suffixes are cognate with the English -ish and -(i)an, and fulfil the same function: they create adjectives meaning something that is characteristic or typical of a certain noun.
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">masc. sg.</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">Hénos</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskós
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskóm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskôs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskósjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâōm
|}


<span class="c12">Hónos</span>
'''-ānós''' conjugates as '''-nós''' does, in '''4.6.7'''.


<span class="c12">Hnós</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">Hénom</span>
=== 4.6.5 Possession of a thing or quality, or having undergone an action: -ātos ===


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénosjo</span>
The stress pattern is more similar to regular nouns, with the zero or unstressed full grade throughout.


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénosmej</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātós
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātóm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātôs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātósjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâōm
|}


| class="c42 c50" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénosmi</span>
Any zero-grade adjective extended with '''-ā-''' or '''-ī-''' are declined identically.


|- class="c17"
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">neut. sg.</span>


| class="c111 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénod</span>
=== 4.6.6 Material or consistency: -īnós ===


|- class="c17"
-īnos creates adjectives generally related to a material of which something is made. Stress falls on the suffix at all times, but the root does not need to be zero-grade.
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">fem. sg.</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">Hénā</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnós
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnóm
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâ
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnôs
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâ
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -īnósjo
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -īnôm
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâōm
|}


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">Hénām</span>


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">Hénosjās</span>
=== 4.6.7 Zero-grade adjectives ===


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">Hénosjāej</span>
All the adjectives of this class require a zero-grade root. They are all declined with the following pattern:


| class="c42 c50"| <span class="c12">Hénosjā</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Cós
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Cóm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Côs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Cósjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Côm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câōm
|}


|- class="c17"
* '''(∅)-kós''' of or pertaining to something
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">masc. pl.</span>
* '''(∅)-lós''' diminutive adjective or noun
* '''(∅)-nós''' capable of (a verb), tending to (verb)
* '''(∅)-rós''' basic adjectives in the Caland system
* '''(∅)-tós''' past participles
* '''(∅)-wós''' basic adjectives from verbs
* '''(∅)-jós''' (athematic) basic adjectives from nouns
** this appears as '''(é)-jos ~ (é)-josjo''' if the noun is thematic


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">Hénoj</span>


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">Hénoms</span>
=== 4.6.8 Contrastive adjective ===


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénojsōm</span>
The contrastive adjective produces the slightly complex meaning of &quot;something which is X rather than anything else&quot;.


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénojmos</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-teros
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terom
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terā
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terōs
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terā
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terās
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terosjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terās
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terōm
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terāōm
|}


<span class="c12">/-bhos</span>


| class="c42 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénojsu</span>
=== 4.6.9 Elative adjective ===


|- class="c17"
The elative adjectives is one which describes the greatness of something, meaning &quot;very X&quot;.
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">neut. pl.</span>


| class="c0" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">Hénā</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-jōs
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-jos
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jésī
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-joses
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-jōs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jésīs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isés
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isjā́s
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isjâōm
|}


|- class="c17"
| class="c42"| <span class="c15 c16">fem. pl.</span>


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">Hénās</span>
=== 4.6.10 Verbal participles ===


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">Hénām̥s</span>
These essentially function as adjectives. They use several special forms of the adjective endings listed above in limited functions.


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">Hénāsōm</span>


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">Hénāmos</span>
==== 4.6.10.1 Present participle ====


<span class="c12">/-bhos</span>
The present participle uses the form '''(é)-onts ~ (∅)-n̥tés''' in thematic verbs, as does the '''-onts''' form in the Caland system above, and '''(∅)-ónts ~ (∅)-n̥tés''' in athematic verbs. It is directly equivalent to the English &quot;-ing&quot;. It is used with '''Héses''' in any tense to indicate continuous tenses, such as '''Hésmi Hdónts''' &quot;I am eating&quot;.


| class="c42 c46"| <span class="c12">Hénāsu</span>


|}
==== 4.6.10.2 Past participle ====


<span class="c12"></span>
The past participle uses the form '''(∅)-tós ~ (∅)-tósjo'''. As a verbal adjective it essentially means &quot;X-ed&quot;. Although it can be used as an independent adjective, it is perhaps most commonly used in its neuter form with '''kápes''' &quot;to have, get&quot; in the perfect-tense construction, such as '''kápmi Hdtóm''' &quot;I have eaten&quot;.


<span class="c12">There are multiple forms given in the first cell because the root can be reconstructed in each of those forms, all of which can be used as the basis for this demonstrative.</span>


<span>As with </span><span class="c27">so</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">Hénos</span><span> is used as a determiner, with its independent pronominal form being </span><span class="c27">ḱênos</span><span>: </span><span class="c27">ḱênod Hésti Hwésu </span><span>&quot;that is good&quot;, and </span><span class="c27">Hénos Hnêr Hésti Hwésus</span><span> &quot;that man is good&quot;.</span>
==== 4.6.10.3 Passive participle ====


Unlike '''-tós''', which is active in meaning, the passive participle indicates something which &quot;has been X-ed&quot;. Its form is '''(é)-om(H)nos ~ (∅)-óm(H)nosjo''' in thematic verbs, an '''(∅)-m̥(H)nós ~ (∅)-m̥(H)nósjo''' in athematic verbs. It is also used with '''Héses''' to construct passive verb forms, such as '''Hésmi Hdm̥Hnós''' &quot;I am eaten, I have been eaten&quot;.


-----


<span id="h.m4gvyxozl951"></span>
==== 4.6.10.4 Stative-type past participle ====
== <span class="c41 c16">4.5                        Nouns and noun declension</span> ==


<span class="c12">Proto-Indo-European had somewhat complex noun declensions, which are carried over to SAvIE. As with pronouns, common nouns decline in the singular and plural, but also in the vocative to give six cases.</span>
This participle is a special type with optional initial reduplication: masculine '''(é)-(∅)-wōs ~ (é)-(∅)-usos''', feminine '''(é)-(∅)-usī ~ (e)-(∅)-usjâs''', neuter '''(é)-(∅)-wos ~ (é)-(∅)-usos'''.


<span class="c12">The pattern which is seen in many noun declensions is given below.</span>


{| class="wikitable c11"
==== 4.6.10.5 Perfect participle ====
|- class="c14"
| class="c55"| <span class="c12">Athematic</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Masculine sg.</span>
Although Ancient Greek and Sanskrit had a perfect participle, such a formation would be against the spirit of SAE, which specifies a perfect-tense formation using the &quot;have&quot; verb. As such, there is no dedicated perfect participle; rather, a perfect participial formation involves the present participle of '''kápes''' and a past participle of another verb, such as '''kapónts wl̥tóm''' &quot;having seen&quot;.


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Neuter sg.</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Masculine pl.</span>
== 4.7 Adjective comparison ==


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Neuter pl.</span>
Adjectives can be further declined in two degrees: the comparative and the superlative. The comparative produces adjectives meaning &quot;more X&quot;, while the superlative produces &quot;the most X&quot;.


|- class="c17"
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-s ~ -∅</span>
=== 4.7.1 Comparative adjective ===


| class="c49" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">-∅</span>
The comparative adjective degree can be expressed either with the contrastive '''-teros''' or elative '''-yōs''' ending. The comparative element translating to &quot;than&quot; is expressed with '''Hánti''' &quot;against&quot;, and the noun being compared against is placed in the dative, for example '''ís Hésti Hl̥tóteros ~ Hl̥tójōs Hánti méǵhjo''' &quot;he is taller than me&quot;.


| class="c55 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">-es</span>


| class="c55 c46" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">*-h₂</span>
=== 4.7.2 Superlative adjective ===


|- class="c17"
The superlative degree expresses &quot;the most X&quot;. As such, it is always used with the article '''só'''.
| class="c55"| <span class="c123 c130 c16">Vocative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-∅</span>
For ease, I have opted to reduce the potential superlative adjective endings to two, discounting those reconstructions with a laryngeal. The adjective is formed in one of two ways: '''(∅)-otm̥mós''' or '''(∅)-istós'''. The former is used for thematic adjectives, whereas the latter is used for athematic adjectives.


|- class="c17"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c55"| <span class="c122 c16">Accusative</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mós
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥móm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥môs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mósjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥môm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâōm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istós
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istóm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istôs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istósjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istôm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâōm
|}


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-m̥</span>
Although this table describes each form as using a zero-grade root because the stress shifts to the ending, the root can also be made e-grade in all cases.


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">-m̥s</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 4.7.3 Absolute superlative adjective ===
| class="c55"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive</span>


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-s ~ -(e/o)s</span>
The superlative can be augmented further, in order to create the absolute superlative, which holds even more force than the superlative. It is a combination of both superlative adjective forms, giving '''(∅)-istm̥mós'''. It declines exactly as '''-otm̥mós''' does.


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ōm</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mós
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥móm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥môs
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâ
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâs
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mósjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâs
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥môm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâōm
|}


|- class="c17"
| class="c55"| <span class="c102 c16">Dative</span>


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ej</span>
= 5 Verbs =


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-bhos</span>
SAvIE verbs are complex, but with fewer irregularities than Proto-Indo-European's daughter languages. SAvIE in particular takes the feature of the &quot;have&quot;-perfect tense and expands the concept to include multiple periphrastic tenses and verb forms, including all continuous tenses, and all passive forms.


<span class="c12">-mos</span>
SAvIE verbs are divided into two kinds: ''conjugated'' and ''periphrastic''. Conjugated forms are ones to which a suffix is attached to form a directly usable tense. Periphrastic forms involve a conjugated form of one of a limited selection of verbs, along with a ''particle''. Particles themselves are one of four non-finite forms which indicate tense and aspect.


|- class="c17"
| class="c55"| <span class="c123 c16 c135">Locative</span>


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-i, -∅</span>
== 5.1 Non-finite forms, and infinitive ==


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-su</span>
It should not be necessary to revise non-finite forms, as they are all described in '''4.6.8'''. Two forms not described there are the ''infinitive'', which is used simply to name the verb, the ''supine'', used only in special verb constructions, and the ''purportative'', used with verbs of wanting, owing, or intending.


|}
The infinitive takes the form '''(é)-es''', and is a shortened locative form of the purportative '''(é)-os''' and '''(é)-esos''', which creates result or action nouns. This makes it cognate with the Ancient Greek (-ειν) and Latin (-ere) infinitives.


<span class="c12"></span>
For deponents, the infinitive is formed with '''(∅)-és''', and the purportatives '''(é)-osm̥''' and '''(∅)-sés'''.


{| class="wikitable c11"
The supine takes the form '''(∅)-ént''', also a locative form, of the present participle '''-onts'''. For deponents, it is '''(∅)-tój'''. It is used in combination with verbs of motion in order to indicate purpose, such as '''ís cémt Had wl̥ént mé''' &quot;he came to see me&quot;.
|- class="c14"
| class="c55"| <span class="c12">Thematic</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Masculine sg.</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Neuter sg.</span>
== 5.2 Conjugated forms ==


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Masculine pl.</span>
Verbs each conjugate in multiple tenses, each of which has three persons (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), two numbers (singular and plural) and two moods (indicative and optative). In total there are four tenses: the ''nonpast'' (which encompasses the present and, optionally, future), the ''imperfect'' (semantically identical to the past continuous, but used especially in certain constructions), the ''aorist'' (or ''preterite'', or ''simple past''), and the ''habitual'' (which is technically tenseless).


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Neuter pl.</span>
All conjugated forms use one of two sets of endings, called the ''primary'' and ''secondary''. Primary endings indicate the nonpast tense, and secondary endings most others. Each set of endings can be either ''thematic'' or ''athematic''.


|- class="c17"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''Primary'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''Secondary'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Thematic'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Athematic'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Thematic'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Athematic'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st person singular'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ō
| style="text-align: center;"| -mi
| style="text-align: center;"| -om
| style="text-align: center;"| -m̥
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd person singular'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -esi
| style="text-align: center;"| -si
| style="text-align: center;"| -es
| style="text-align: center;"| -s
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd person singular'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -eti
| style="text-align: center;"| -ti
| style="text-align: center;"| -et
| style="text-align: center;"| -t
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st person plural'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -omos
| style="text-align: center;"| -mós
| style="text-align: center;"| -ome
| style="text-align: center;"| -mé
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd person plural'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -ete
| style="text-align: center;"| -té
| style="text-align: center;"| -ete
| style="text-align: center;"| -té
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd person plural'''
| style="text-align: center;"| -onti
| style="text-align: center;"| -énti
| style="text-align: center;"| -ont
| style="text-align: center;"| -ént
|}


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-os</span>
Whether a verb is thematic or not is unpredictable, and must be learnt on a case-by-case basis.


| class="c49" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">-om</span>


| class="c55 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ōs</span>
=== 5.2.1 Nonpast ===


| class="c55 c46" rowspan="3"| <span class="c12">-ā</span>
The nonpast combines both the present and future tenses. The simple future has an additional periphrastic tense, but the simple present does not. It is indicated by the primary endings.


|- class="c17"
The first model is of '''bhéres''' &quot;to bear, carry&quot;. It is a root thematic verb.
| class="c55"| <span class="c123 c16 c130">Vocative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-e</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Thematic nonpast verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō
| '''bhérō''' ''I bear''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi
| '''bhéresi''' ''you bear''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti
| '''bhéreti''' ''he/she/it bears''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos
| '''bhéromos''' ''we bear''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete
| '''bhérete''' ''you (pl.) bear''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti
| '''bhéronti''' ''they bear''
|}


|- class="c17"
This model is '''Hédes''' &quot;to eat&quot;. It is a root athematic verb.
| class="c55"| <span class="c122 c16">Accusative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-om</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Athematic nonpast verb
| '''Model'''
| '''Example'''
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mi
| '''Hédmi''' ''I eat''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-si
| '''Hédsi''' ''you eat''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ti
| '''Hédti''' ''he/she/it eats''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mós
| '''Hdmós''' ''we eat''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-té
| '''Hdté''' ''you (pl.) eat''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-énti
| '''Hdénti''' ''they eat''
|}
 
Since they can be used as a future tense too, a nonpast form '''bhérō''' can mean both &quot;I bear&quot; and &quot;I will bear&quot;, though for clarity the latter can be expressed with the periphrastic future tense, described later.


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">-oms</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 5.2.2 Imperfect ===
| class="c55"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive</span>


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-osjo</span>
The imperfect is indicated by the usage of secondary endings in place of primary ones. It signals a past continuous tense.


<span>-ī</span><sup>[[#ftnt1|[1]]]</sup>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Thematic imperfect verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-om
| '''bhérom''' ''I was bearing''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-es
| '''bhéres''' ''you were bearing''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-et
| '''bhéret''' ''he/she/it was bearing''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ome
| '''bhérome''' ''we were bearing''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete
| '''bhérete''' ''you (pl.) were bearing''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti
| '''bhéronti''' ''they were bearing''
|}


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ōm</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Athematic imperfect verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-m̥
| '''Hédm̥''' ''I was eating''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-s
| '''Héds''' ''you were eating''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-t
| '''Hédt''' ''he/she/it was eating''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mé
| '''Hdmé''' ''we were eating''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-té
| '''Hdté''' ''you (pl.) were eating''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-énti
| '''Hdénti''' ''they were eating''
|}


|- class="c17"
The main difference of the imperfect conjugated form from the past continuous periphrastic form is the usage in formulaic constructions, shown later.
| class="c55"| <span class="c102 c16">Dative</span>


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ōj (← -oej)</span>


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-o(j)bhos</span>
=== 5.2.3 Aorist ===


<span class="c12">-o(j)mos</span>
The aorist forms a simple past. It also uses the secondary endings, but can be one of two further formations. The '''derived aorist''' is given for '''root present''' verbs, that is, ones which are not formed with secondary derivation such as the nasal infix. This forms as below.


|- class="c17"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c55"| <span class="c123 c135 c16">Locative</span>
|-
| Aorist verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sm̥
| '''bhêrsm̥''' ''I bore''


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-oj ~ -ej</span>
'''Hêdsm̥''' ''I ate''


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ojsu</span>
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-s
| '''bhêrs''' ''you bore''


|}
'''Hêds''' ''you ate''


<span class="c12"></span>
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-st
| '''bhêrst''' ''he/she/it bore''


<span>This only applies to masculine and neuter nouns, as noted in the tables above. Feminine nouns usually conform to the following:</span>
'''Hêdst''' ''he/she/it ate''


|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sme
| '''bhérsme''' ''we bore''


-----
'''Hédsme''' ''we ate''


<span class="c12"></span>
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ste
| '''bhérste''' ''you (pl.) bore''


{| class="wikitable c11"
'''Hédste''' ''you (pl.) ate''
|- class="c17"
| class="c55" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Thematic</span>


| class="c136" colspan="2"| <span class="c15 c16">-ā type</span>
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sn̥t
| '''bhérsn̥t''' ''they bore''


| class="c136" colspan="2"| <span class="c15 c16">-ī type</span>
'''Hédsn̥t''' ''they ate''


|- class="c17"
|}
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Feminine sg.</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Feminine pl.</span>
The second formation is the '''root aorist''', given for '''derived verbs''' that do not fit into the above category. It uses the secondary endings attached to a root with no intervening secondary derivations, and can be either thematic or athematic. As such, it is completely identical with the imperfect tense of root present verbs. It differs from the imperfect of derived verbs by dropping secondary derivation. For example, for '''léjqes''' &quot;to leave&quot; has the (derived) present '''linéqti''', (derived) imperfect '''linéqt''', and root aorist '''léjqt'''.


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Feminine sg.</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Feminine pl.</span>
=== 5.2.4 Habitual ===


|- class="c17"
The habitual has no explicit tense – the position in time of the relevant action depends solely on the context of the sentence. The form of this is a thematic verb with secondary endings.
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative</span>


| class="c49" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ā</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Dynamic habitual verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-óm
| '''Hdóm''' ''I used to eat''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-és
| '''Hdés''' ''you used to eat''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ét
| '''Hdét''' ''he/she/it used to eat''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-óme
| '''Hdóme''' ''we used to eat''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éte
| '''Hdéte''' ''you used to eat''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ónt
| '''Hdónt''' ''they used to eat''
|}


| class="c55 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">-ās (← -āes)</span>


| class="c49" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">(é)-ī</span>
=== 5.2.5 Stative-type present ===


| class="c55 c46" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">(é)-īs (← -īes)</span>
For very few verbs the present is formed using the Proto-Indo-European stative formation. These have no imperfect or aorist, and have special past participle forms built on '''-wōs ~ -usī ~ -wos'''.


|- class="c17"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c55"| <span class="c123 c130 c16">Vocative</span>
|-
| Stative habitual verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-Ha
| '''móghHa''' ''I can''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-tHa
| '''móghtHa''' ''you can''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-e
| '''móghe''' ''he/she/it knows''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mé
| '''m̥ghmé''' ''we can''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-é
| '''m̥ghé''' ''you (pl.) know''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êr
| '''m̥ghêr''' ''they know''
|}


|- class="c17"
| class="c55"| <span class="c122 c16">Accusative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-ām</span>
=== 5.2.6 Deponent ===


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">-ām̥s</span>
A very small number of verbs is a deponent: one which looks like an old mediopassive form, but acts as though it were active. This is not counted as a passive form. Deponent verbs have special forms in all tenses.


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(é)-īm̥</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Deponent verbs
| style="text-align: center;"| Nonpast
| style="text-align: center;"| Imperfect
| style="text-align: center;"| Aorist
| style="text-align: center;"| Habitual
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| <sup>athematic</sup>(∅)-Hár


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-īm̥s</span>
<sup>thematic</sup>(é)-ōr


|- class="c17"
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Há
| class="c55"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-ās</span>
(é)-ōa


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">-āōm</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sHa
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôr
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tHár


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(∅)-jâs</span>
(é)-etHar


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-jâōm</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tHá


|- class="c17"
(é)-etHa
| class="c55"| <span class="c102 c16">Dative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-āj (← -āej)</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-stHa
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-étHar
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-(t)ór


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">-ābhos</span>
(é)-etor


<span class="c12">-āmos</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-(t)ó


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(∅)-jâj (← -jâej)</span>
(é)-eto


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-jâbhos</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-s(t)o
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-étor
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mósdhH


<span class="c12">(∅)-jâmos</span>
(é)-omosdhH


|- class="c17"
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-médhH
| class="c55"| <span class="c123 c135 c16">Locative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">-ā(i)</span>
(é)-omedhH


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">-āsu</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-smedhH
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ómosdhH
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-dhHwé


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(∅)-jâ(i)</span>
(é)-edhHwe


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-jâsu</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-dhHwé


|}
(é)-edhHwe


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sdhHwe
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-édhHwe
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-rór ~ (∅)-ntór


<span class="c12">ī-type nouns retain a fixed stress-ablaut pattern, whereas ā-type nouns are much more flexible; these can be o-grade with stress on the ending, e-grade with shifting stress, or zero-grade with stress on the ending.</span>
(é)-oror ~ (é)-ontor


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ró ~ (∅)-ntó


<span class="c12">Many noun declensions are a variation on the above patterns. Some common variations are as follows.</span>
(é)-oro ~ (é)-ento


<span id="h.ocpcfe2xm46i"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sro ~ -sn̥to
=== <span class="c63">4.5.1                        -mn̥, -mō, -mên</span> ===
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-óror ~ (∅)-óntor
|}


<span>These endings all look very similar to each other, and fulfil relatively similar functions. </span><span class="c27">-mn̥</span><span> creates neuter result nouns, while </span><span class="c27">-mō</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">-mên</span><span> create masculine agent nouns. There is no appreciable difference in meaning between </span><span class="c27">-mō</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">-mên</span><span class="c12">; they are both included to use freely when they appear in cognates among daughter languages.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
=== 5.2.7 Imperative ===


{| class="wikitable c11"
The imperative is its own mood, and conjugates only in the second and third person. It is tenseless, so there is only one set of imperative forms for each verb. Their forms differ only slightly based on thematicity.
|- class="c14"
| class="c28"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">-mn̥</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Thematic imperative
| Model
| Example
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-e
| '''bhére''' ''bear!''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-etu
| '''bhéretu''' ''let him/her/it bear!''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete
| '''bhérete''' ''bear (pl.)!''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ontu
| '''bhérontu''' ''let them bear!''
|}


| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">-mō</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Athematic imperative
| Model
| Example
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-∅


| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">-mên</span>
(∅)-dhí


|- class="c14"
| '''Héd'''
| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-mn̥</span>
'''Hddhí''' ''eat!''


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-mō</span>
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tu
| '''Hédtu''' ''let him/her/it eat!''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-té
| '''Hdté''' ''eat (pl.)!''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntu
| '''Hdéntu''' ''let them eat!''
|}


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-mên</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Stative-type imperative
| Model
| Example
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(ó)-∅


|- class="c17"
(e)-(∅)-dhí
| class="c28"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-méns</span>
| '''memón''' ''remember!''


| class="c44 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(∅)-m̥nés</span>
'''memn̥dhí''' ''remember!''


|- class="c14"
|-
| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(ó)-tu
| '''memóntu''' ''let him/her/it remember!''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(∅)-té
| '''memn̥té''' ''remember (pl.)!''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(∅)-éntu
| '''memnéntu''' ''let them remember!''
|}


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-mō</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Deponent imperative
| Model
| Example
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-o
| '''wéso!''' ''wear (it)!''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-(e)to
| '''wésto!''' ''let him/her/it wear!''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-(e)dh(H)we
| '''wésdh(H)we!''' ''wear (pl.) (it)!''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-(o)nto
| '''wésn̥to!''' ''let them wear!''
|}


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-mones</span>


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-ménes</span>
=== 5.2.8 Special formation types ===


|- class="c17"
Some verb forms include affixes which attach to a verb root to form a stem, onto which certain endings are added. In this document, ''primary'' indicates verbs whose suffixes do not add significant special meaning, which form a root present and sigmatic aorist (including on suffixes '''-ê-''', '''-ā-''', etc.); ''secondary'' indicates verbs which use special derivational suffixes for the present and form a root aorist; ''tertiary'' indicates verbs which use meaningful derivational suffixes but do not form an aorist because the meaning of the derived verb contrasts the meaning of its non-derived counterpart.
| class="c28"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-m̥nés</span>


| class="c44 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(∅)-m̥nôm</span>
==== 5.2.8.1 Nasal infix (secondary) ====


|}
There is a special form of nonpast and imperfect formed with the ''nasal infix'' '''-né-  ~ -n-''' on the zero-grade stem. This infix ablauts from the singular to the plural in the indicative, remains '''-né-''' in the subjunctive, and is conjugated with athematic endings. The infix is only seen in these two tenses.




-----
==== 5.2.8.2 sḱ-inchoative verbs (primary) ====


<span class="c12"></span>
The infix '''-sḱ-''' attaches to some verb roots to form verbs which occasionally, but not always, have an inchoative meaning. These verbs are thematic.


<span id="h.ge84nak814v2"></span>
=== <span class="c63">4.5.2                        -tōr, -têr, -trī</span> ===


<span class="c12">These endings derived masculine, masculine, and feminine agent noun endings.</span>
==== 5.2.8.3 -j- infix transitive-intransitive pairs (primary) ====


<span class="c12"></span>
Some verbs can be formed with '''(é)-jeti''' or '''(∅)-jéti'''. The former will always form transitive verbs, and the latter intransitive verbs. The intransitive in particular implies an ongoing action, and as such has no aorist tense. Verb roots can be combined with each of these to produce a pair of transitive and intransitive verbs, but this need not be the case. In case it does, conjugated verb forms differ in all forms except the aorist, where both forms are identical.


{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c28"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">-tōr</span>
==== 5.2.8.4 -néw- infix verbs (tertiary) ====


| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">-têr</span>
As with the nasal infix, some verbs will form their present, imperfect, and habitual tenses with '''-néw-'''. This is placed after a zero-grade verb root, and is athematic in the present and imperfect. It ablauts to '''-nu-''' when unstressed, including in all persons of the habitual.


| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">-trī</span>


|- class="c14"
==== 5.2.8.5 Causative formations (primary) ====
| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-tōr</span>
The verb form '''(o)-éjeti ~ (o)-éjonti''' forms causative verbs, such as '''Hédmi''' &quot;to eat&quot; becoming '''Hodéjeti''' &quot;to feed&quot;. This forms verbs meaning &quot;to cause to do X&quot;. This makes explicitly transitive verbs, often from existing verb roots or from adjective roots.


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-têr</span>


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-trī</span>
==== 5.2.8.6 Desiderative formations (primary) ====


|- class="c17"
The affix '''-sj-''' is added to very few verb roots to form desiderative &quot;want to X&quot; verbs. It is thematic, attaches to the zero-grade root, and is accented on the thematic vowel, as '''Hdsjéti''' &quot;to want to eat, to be hungry&quot;.
| class="c28"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(∅)-trés</span>


| class="c28 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-tr̥jâs</span>
==== 5.2.8.7 Adjectival stative formations (primary) ====


|- class="c14"
The suffix '''(∅)-êti ~ (∅)-ên̥ti''' (athematic) or '''(∅)-êjeti ~ (∅)-êjonti''' (thematic) form stative &quot;to be X&quot; verbs specifically from adjective roots, such as '''Hrudhêti''' &quot;to be red&quot;. These verbs can expand slightly in meaning from a stative &quot;to be X&quot; to a dynamic &quot;to go X, to become X&quot;. In either case they are explicitly intransitive verbs, and must be made causative to become transitive.
| class="c28"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-tores</span>


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-téres</span>
==== 5.2.8.8 Reduplicated thematic verbs (secondary) ====


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-trīs</span>
Very few verbs will form their nonpast and imperfect with '''(í)-(∅)-eti ~ (í)-(∅)-onti'''; they have a reduplicated element with '''-i-''' as the vowel which retains the stress, such as '''sísdeti''' &quot;to sit&quot;. These have no special meaning, and are simply formations of the tense.


|- class="c17"
| class="c28"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(∅)-trôm</span>
==== 5.2.8.9 Reduplicated athematic verbs (secondary) ====


| class="c28 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-tr̥jâōm</span>
Similarlty to the above, some verbs will form with '''(í/é)-(e)-ti ~ (í/é)-(∅)-nti''', such as '''stístāti''' &quot;to stand up&quot;. These verbs also have no particular nuance, and are formed arbitrarily.


|}


<span class="c12"></span>
==== 5.2.8.10 Zero-grade thematic formation (primary) ====


<span id="h.usekf6fkb02b"></span>
The so-called ''tudati'' type verb forms all tenses from '''(∅)-éti ~ (∅)-ónti''', in which case its habitual and imperfect are identical.
=== <span class="c63">4.5.3                        -trom, -tlom, -dhrom, -dhlom</span> ===


<span>This is a variation of 4.5.2, all of which produce neuter nouns of tools or instruments. There is no difference between forms with </span><span class="c27">-r-</span><span> and forms with </span><span class="c27">-l-</span><span>; however, the forms beginning </span><span class="c27">-dh-</span><span> are used after roots ending in a laryngeal, whether deleted or not, and </span><span class="c27">-t-</span><span> is used otherwise. They are all conjugated in the exact same way, so only the conjugation for </span><span class="c27">-trom</span><span class="c12"> is given below.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
==== 5.2.8.11 Factitive (deadjectival) verbs (primary) ====


{| class="wikitable c11"
The factitive verb form '''(é)-āti ~ (é)-ān̥ti''' creates verbs that imply &quot;to make X&quot;, such as '''néwāti''' &quot;to renew, to make new&quot;.
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">-trom</span>


|- class="c14"
==== 5.2.8.12 Denominative verbs (primary) ====
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-trom</span>
Despite their similarity with the -j- infix verbs described in '''5.2.7.3''', the verb forms '''(∅)-ejéti ~ (∅)-ejónti''' and '''(∅)-ājéti ~ (∅)-ājónti''' are denominative (and occasionally deadjectival) suffixes; they are derived from (mainly) noun stems to indicate a performance of that noun.


|- class="c17"
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-trosyo</span>
==== 5.2.8.13 Iterative/frequentative/intensive formation (primary) ====


<span class="c12">(é)-trī</span>
These verbs are marked by the thematic suffix '''-ājéti ~ -ājónti''', and may appear as o-grade among others. This suffix forms verbs with iterative (repetition of an action, but only during one distinct occasion), frequentative (occasional repetition of an action on several undefined occasions), or intensive meaning.


|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-trā</span>
==== 5.2.8.14 -dhHéti resultative formation (primary) ====


|- class="c17"
The resultative formation '''(é)-dhHeti ~ (é)-dhHonti''' generally expresses “to become X”. As a result it is most commonly formed from adjective roots.
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-trōm</span>


|}
== 5.3 Periphrastic forms ==


<span class="c12"></span>
These verb forms are a combination of a conjugated form and a non-finite form: a conjugated verb and a participle.


<span id="h.y636ufvfv3ya"></span>
=== <span class="c63">4.5.4                        -ō, -Hₒō</span> ===


<span>These are called </span><span class="c20">nasal</span><span> suffixes, because in each case but the nominative, ⟨n⟩ appears in the suffix. </span><span class="c27">-ō</span><span> creates masculine </span><span class="c20">participant</span><span> nouns; these are ones which indicate a person or thing which does something, or exists as the result of an action, such as </span><span class="c27">skérō </span><span>&quot;meat&quot; from </span><span class="c20">*(s)kér-</span><span> &quot;to cut&quot;, with the resulting meaning being &quot;something cut&quot;. A derivative of those, </span><span class="c27">-Honos / -ā / -om</span><span>, is used to create augmentative nouns.</span>
=== 5.3.1 Explicit future tense ===


Although the nonpast tense can be used as an implicit future, a periphrastic future can be expressed with the verb '''Héjes''' &quot;to go&quot;, with the supine form, such as '''éǵ''' '''Héjmi Hdént''' &quot;I am going to eat, I will eat&quot;.


-----


<span>-Hō is similar; it produces nouns and adjectives of all genders to create words which indicate possession of a certain quality, or a responsibility for carrying out or responsibility to carry out a certain action, like </span><span class="c27">pl̥tHús</span><span> &quot;wide, broad&quot; becoming </span><span class="c27">Pĺ̥tHō </span><span>&quot;Plato&quot;, originally meaning &quot;wide/broad one&quot;. It is assumed to be formed from Proto-Indo-European </span><span class="c20">*-h₃en(h₂)-</span><span>, and colours vowels accordingly (by -h₃-).</span>
=== 5.3.2 Perfect tense ===


<span class="c12"></span>
The perfect tense is handled by the verb '''kápes''', which is only used to form this particular tense. It carries the meaning of &quot;have X-ed&quot;. The nonpast tense is used with the past participle, such as '''éǵ kápmi Hdtóm''' &quot;I have eaten&quot;.


{| class="wikitable c11"
If there is no direct object, the neuter form '''-tóm''' of the participle should be used. However, if there is a direct object, the past participle should match the gender of the object, such as '''íd kápti Hdtâ îm̥''' &quot;it has eaten her&quot;.
|- class="c17"
| class="c55" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">ō masculine</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Hₒō masculine</span>
=== 5.3.3 Pluperfect tense ===


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Hₒō neuter</span>
The pluperfect &quot;had X-ed&quot; can be formed by changing the conjugated from of '''kápes''' from the nonpast to the aorist, such as '''éǵ kâpsm̥ Hdtóm''' &quot;I had eaten&quot;. The participle must also agree as in the perfect tense.


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Hₒō feminine</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 5.3.4 Future perfect tense ===
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">-ō</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">-Hₒō</span>
Instead of using '''kápes''', the future formation of '''Héjes''' must be used with the supine form '''kapént''' and a past participle, such as '''éǵ Héjmi kapént Hdtóm''' &quot;I will have eaten&quot;. Once again, that the participle must agree with the object's gender is retained.


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">-Hₒon</span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">-Hₒónī</span>
=== 5.3.5 Continuous tenses ===


|- class="c14"
A continuous tense indicates an explicitly imperfective tense, showing that an action is underway and incomplete.
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(é)-ō</span>
Continuous tenses can be formed with the nonpast and imperfect conjugations of '''Héses''' along with a present participle, such as '''Hésmi Hdónts''' &quot;I am eating&quot;, or '''Hésm̥ Hdónts''' &quot;I was eating&quot;.


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(  ́)-Hō</span>
In addition, the future tense can form a continuous: '''Héjmi Hsént Hdónts''' &quot;I will be eating&quot;, and '''Héjmi kapént Hstóm Hdónts''' &quot;I will have been eating&quot;.


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(  ́)-Hon</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(∅)-Hónī</span>
=== 5.3.6 Imperfective anterior ===


|- class="c17"
This construction translates as &quot;was going to X&quot;. It can either take the imperfect or the aorist form of '''Héses''', with the present participle of '''Héjes''' and the supine. The aorist form is usually used as a simple description of events: '''bhéwHsm̥ Hjónts Hdént''' &quot;I was going to eat&quot;. The imperfect form, on the contrary, is usually used to introduce the context before another action, with the second action being placed in the aorist: '''Hésm̥ Hjónts Hdént,''' '''qomóḱs''' '''ís cémt''' &quot;I was going to eat when he came&quot;.
| class="c55"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(∅)-nés</span>


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(∅)-Hnés</span>
=== 5.3.7 Passive forms ===


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(∅)-Honjâs</span>
SAvIE makes no distinction between the middle and the passive, preferring only to use a passive. This is formed with any conjugated form of '''Héses''' with the passive participle, such as '''bhéwHsm̥ Hdm̥Hnós''' &quot;I was eaten&quot;.


|- class="c14"
Periphrastic tenses can also be made passive: '''Hésm̥ Hjónts Hsént Hdm̥Hnós, qomóḱs ís cémt''' &quot;I was going to be eaten when he came&quot;.
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ones</span>


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(  ́)-Hones</span>
== 5.4 Subjunctive ==


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(  ́)-Hō</span>
The subjunctive is a conjugated verb form used either to express uncertainty semantically, or to express a relative clause.


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-Hónīs</span>


|- class="c17"
=== 5.4.1 Nonpast subjunctive ===
| class="c55"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-nôm</span>
The subjunctive of root thematic nonpast verbs simply lengthens the theme vowel, with '''-ō''' gaining '''-H'''; given the proto-form is ''*-ōh₂'', no change is expected, but '''-H''' is added to distinguish the subjunctive form from the indicative.


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(∅)-Hnôm</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Thematic nonpast verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō
| '''bhérōH''' ''(that) I bear''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēsi
| '''bhérēsi''' ''(that) you bear''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēti
| '''bhérēti''' ''(that) he/she/it bear''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ōmos
| '''bhérōmos''' ''(that) we bear''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēte
| '''bhérēte''' ''(that) you (pl.) bear''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ōnti
| '''bhérōnti''' ''(that) they bear''
|}


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-Hn̥jâōm</span>
The athematic nonpast verbs, meanwhile, are converted to thematic verbs with acrostatic stress.


{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Athematic nonpast verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō
| '''Hédō''' ''(that) I eat''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi
| '''Hédesi''' ''(that) you eat''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti
| '''Hédeti''' ''(that) he/she/it eat''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos
| '''Hédomos''' ''(that) we eat''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete
| '''Hédete''' ''(that) you (pl.) eat''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti
| '''Hédonti''' ''(that) they eat''
|}
|}


<span class="c12"></span>


<span id="h.d5xgomcush4k"></span>
=== 5.4.2 Imperfect subjunctive ===
=== <span class="c63">4.5.5                        -r̥, -mr̥, -sr̥, -tr̥, -wr̥</span> ===


<span>These all belong to and are declined exactly as the basic ending </span><span class="c27">-r̥</span><span class="c12">, which is rare and unproductive. It produces very few basic neuter nouns.</span>
There is no imperfect subjunctive in SAvIE; the habitual subjunctive should be used instead.


<span class="c12"></span>


{| class="wikitable c11"
=== 5.4.3 Aorist subjunctive ===
|- class="c17"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">-r̥</span>
Since the aorist uses athematic secondary endings, the subjunctive changes these to thematic primary endings, and keeps a lengthened e-grade root with acrostatic stress.


|- class="c14"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>
|-
| Aorist verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sō
| '''bhêrsō''' ''(that) I bore''


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(ó)-r̥</span>
'''Hêdsō''' ''(that) I ate''


|- class="c17"
|-
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sesi
| '''bhêrsesi''' ''(that) you bore''


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-n̥s</span>
'''Hêdsesi''' ''(that) you ate''


|- class="c17"
|-
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-seti
| '''bhêrseti''' ''(that) he/she/it bore''


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(ó)-r̥H</span>
'''Hêdseti''' ''(that) he/she/it ate''


|- class="c17"
|-
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-somos
| '''bhêrsomos''' ''(that)'' ''we bore''


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-nōm</span>
'''Hêdsomos''' ''(that)'' ''we ate''


|- class="c14"
|-
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative coll.</span>
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sete
| '''bhêrsete''' ''(that) you (pl.) bore''


| class="c25"| <span class="c12">(é)-ōr</span>
'''Hêdsete''' ''(that) you (pl.) ate''


|- class="c17"
|-
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c27">coll</span><span class="c15 c16">.</span>
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sonti
| '''bhêrsonti''' ''(that) they bore''


| class="c25"| <span class="c12">(∅)-nés</span>
'''Hêdsonti''' ''(that) they ate''


|}
|}


<span class="c12"></span>


<span>This ending is exceptional in having a collective number, which is grammatically plural. So, </span><span class="c27">tâ wédōr </span><span>means “the collective of all waters”, whereas </span><span class="c27">tâ wódr̥H</span><span> means “the (particular, definite, definable, countable) waters”.</span>
=== 5.4.4 Habitual subjunctive ===


In the habitual subjunctive of dynamic verbs, the theme vowel is lengthened and used with primary endings, against a zero-grade root, with accent always falling on the endings as in the indicative.


-----
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Dynamic habitual verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôH
| '''HdôH''' ''(that) I used to eat''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êsi
| '''Hdêsi''' ''(that) you used to eat''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êti
| '''Hdêti''' ''(that) he/she/it used to eat''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ômos
| '''Hdômos''' ''(that) we used to eat''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ête
| '''Hdête''' ''(that) you used to eat''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ônti
| '''Hdônti''' ''(that) they used to eat''
|}


<span id="h.g25ex65959t4"></span>
The habitual subjunctive of stative verbs, by contrast, takes an e-grade root with acrostatic stress, and thematic primary endings, identical to root thematic verbs.
=== <span class="c63">4.5.6                        -tus</span> ===


<span class="c12">This suffix produces masculine action nouns from verb roots.</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Stative habitual verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō
| '''wéjdō''' ''(that) I used to know''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi
| '''wéjdesi''' ''(that) you used to know''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti
| '''wéjdeti''' ''(that) he/she/it used to know''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos
| '''wéjdomos''' ''(that) we used to know''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete
| '''wéjdete''' ''(that) you (pl.) used to know''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti
| '''wéjdonti''' ''(that) they used to know''
|}


<span class="c12"></span>


{| class="wikitable c11"
=== 5.4.5 Stative-type subjunctives ===
|- class="c17"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">-tus</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Stative habitual verb
| Model
| Example
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō
| '''wéjdō''' ''(that) I used to know''
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi
| '''wéjdesi''' ''(that) you used to know''
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti
| '''wéjdeti''' ''(that) he/she/it used to know''
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos
| '''wéjdomos''' ''(that) we used to know''
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete
| '''wéjdete''' ''(that) you (pl.) used to know''
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti
| '''wéjdonti''' ''(that) they used to know''
|}


|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-tus</span>
=== 5.4.6 Deponent subjunctives ===


|- class="c17"
As is the case with active verbs, there is no form for the imperfect, and the habitual must be used to cover both tenses.
| class="c44"| <span class="c27 c59">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-téws</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Deponent subjunctive
| Nonpast
| Aorist
| Habitual
|-
| 1st person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| <sup>athematic</sup>(é)-ōr


|- class="c14"
<sup>thematic</sup>(é)-ōHar
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-tewes</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sōr
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôHar
|-
| 2nd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-etHar


|- class="c17"
(é)-ētHar
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-téwōm</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-setHar
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êtHar
|-
| 3rd person singular
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-etor


|}
(é)-ētor


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-setor
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êtor
|-
| 1st person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omosdhH


<span id="h.7oogw22001zd"></span>
(é)-ōmosdhH
=== <span class="c63">4.5.7                        -is, -tis</span> ===


<span class="c27">-is</span><span> produces </span><span class="c20">common gender</span><span> nouns, that is, those which can be either masculine or feminine. It is not shown with an ablaut pattern because it can be used with multiple, including </span><span class="c27">(é)-is</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">(ó)-is</span><span>. It also has the neuter form </span><span class="c27">-i</span><span>. </span><span class="c27">-tis</span><span class="c12"> produces exclusively feminine action or abstract nouns.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-somosdhH
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ômosdhH
|-
| 2nd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-edhHwe


<span class="c12"></span>
(é)-ēdhHwe


{| class="wikitable c11"
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sedhHwe
|- class="c17"
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êdhHwe
| class="c111"| <span class="c12"></span>
|-
| 3rd person plural
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-oror ~ (é)-ontor


| class="c111"| <span class="c15 c16">-is</span>
(é)-ōror ~ (é)-ōntor


| class="c111"| <span class="c15 c16">-tis</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sontor ~ (ê)-soror
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôror ~ (∅)-ôntor
|}


|- class="c14"
| class="c111"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c111 c50"| <span class="c12">-is, -i</span>
== 5.5 The irregular verb Héses ==


| class="c111 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-tis</span>
'''Héses''' &quot;to be&quot; is an irregular verb; it is suppletive in the aorist indicative and aorist and habitual subjunctive tense, where it takes from the stem '''bhū-''', from ''*bʰuH-''. It is important to note that the lengthened grade (seen in the aorist) is '''bhéwH-''', filling in an '''-e-''' by analogy, treating '''bhū-''' as the zero-grade and '''bhéwH-''' as the full-grade form.


|- class="c17"
This is the complete conjugation of '''Héses'''.
| class="c111"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c50 c111"| <span class="c12">-ejs</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| rowspan="2"| Héses


| class="c111 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-téjs</span>
&quot;to be&quot;


|- class="c14"
| colspan="4"| Indicative
| class="c111"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>
| colspan="3"| Subjunctive
| rowspan="2"| Imp.
|-
| Nonp.
| Impf.
| Aor.
| Hab.
| Nonp.
| Aor.
| Hab.
|-
| 1st sg.
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésmi'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésm̥'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsm̥'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsóm'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésō'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsō'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūôH'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''''⸻'''''
|-
| 2nd sg.
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hési'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hés'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHs'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsés'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésesi'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHesi'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūêsi'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsdhí'''
|-
| 3rd sg.
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hést'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHst'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsét'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Héseti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHseti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūêti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Héstu'''
|-
| 1st pl.
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsmós'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsmé'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhûsme'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsóme'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésomos'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsomos'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūômos'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''''⸻'''''
|-
| 2nd pl.
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsté'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhûste'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hséte'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésete'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsete'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūête'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsté'''
|-
| 3rd pl.
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsénti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsént'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhûsn̥t'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsónt'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésonti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsonti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūônti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hséntu'''
|-
| Prs. p.
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsónts ~ Hséntī ~ Hsóntas ~ Hsónt'''
|-
| Pst. p.
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hstós ~ Hstâ ~ Hstás ~ Hstóm'''
|-
| Pass. p.
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''''none'''''
|-
| Purp.
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésos'''
|-
| Supine
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsént'''
|}


| class="c0"| <span class="c12">-ejes, -ejH</span>


| class="c0"| <span class="c12">(é)-tejes</span>
= 6 Gender-neutral paradigm =


|- class="c17"
In SAvIE, there exists a newly-developed gender-neutral form which encompasses a pronoun and large selection of adjectival endings corresponding with each of the adjectives above that has explicitly gendered forms, meaning that common-gender forms are not covered by this paradigm.
| class="c111"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c0"| <span class="c12">-ejōm</span>
The basis of the gender-neutral paradigm is the sound /a/, spelt as ⟨a⟩.


| class="c0"| <span class="c12">(∅)-téjōm</span>
Its pronominal form is as follows:


|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="text-align: left;"|
! style="text-align: left;"| Nominative
! style="text-align: left;"| Accusative
! style="text-align: left;"| Genitive
! style="text-align: left;"| Dative
! style="text-align: left;"| Locative
! style="text-align: left;"| Adjective
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular neutral'''
| style="text-align: center;"| jás
| style="text-align: center;"| jám
| style="text-align: center;"| jás
| style="text-align: center;"| jâj
| style="text-align: center;"| jaj
| style="text-align: center;"| (


<span id="h.pfkak8xwqg4q"></span>
swós
=== <span class="c63">4.5.8                        Agentive and resultative -os</span> ===


<span>Nouns with the pattern (o)-ós create masculine agent nouns denoting someone or something which performs a related action, such as </span><span class="c27">tomHós </span><span>&quot;cutter, slicer&quot;, from the verb </span><span class="c27">tm̥nês</span><span> (← </span><span class="c20">tm̥-né-h₁-es</span><span>) &quot;to slice, to section, to cut up&quot;. When the stress shifts on to the root vowel, this produces a related result noun, </span><span class="c27">tómHos </span><span>&quot;a cut, a slice&quot;. Both of these noun patterns do not shift stress or ablaut within their own paradigm (giving </span><span class="c27">tomHósjo</span><span> &quot;of a/the cutter&quot; and </span><span class="c27">tómHosjo</span><span> &quot;of a/the slice&quot;).</span>
/-â


/-ás


-----
/-óm


<span id="h.a6amanyla0wf"></span>
)
=== <span class="c63">4.5.9                        -snā</span> ===


<span>The ending </span><span class="c27">-snā</span><span> is attached usually to verb stems to indicate either a result noun or a noun indicating the a summary of a category, for example converting </span><span class="c27">tétḱes</span><span> &quot;to create, produce&quot; into </span><span class="c27">tétḱsnā</span><span class="c12"> &quot;art, craft&quot;.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural neutral'''
| style="text-align: center;"| jâs
| style="text-align: center;"| jáms
| style="text-align: center;"| jáōm
| style="text-align: center;"| jámos
| style="text-align: center;"| jásu
| style="text-align: center;"| (


<span class="c12"></span>
swós


{| class="wikitable c11"
/-â
|- class="c17"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">-snā</span>
/-ás


|- class="c14"
/-óm
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-snā</span>
)


|- class="c17"
|}
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-snās</span>
Adjectives, consequently, all decline with '''a'''.


|- class="c14"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-onts → -éntas'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-us → -was'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-wénts → -wéntas'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-os → -oas → -ōs'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-s → -as'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntas
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-was
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntas
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-as '''→''' -ōs
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-as
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tás
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwas
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tás
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-as-jo '''→''' -ōsjo
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ás
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntajes
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ewajes
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntajes
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-ajes '''→''' -ōjes
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ajes
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tájōm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwajōm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tájōm
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-ajōm '''→''' -ōjōm
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ájōm
|}


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-snās</span>
An example of this is '''éǵ wéjdō qid jás Hésti Hwéswas''' &quot;I know that they (sg.) are good&quot;.


|- class="c17"
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-snāōm</span>
= 7 Pro-forms =


|}
SAvIE pro-forms include pronouns and demonstratives, and question forms known as ''wh-words''. They are outlined in the table below.


<span id="h.2cvudt8bph0m"></span>
{| class="wikitable"
=== <span class="c63">4.5.10                -sōr</span> ===
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| interr.


<span class="c27">-sōr</span><span> is similar to </span><span class="c27">-trī</span><span class="c12"> in that it produces feminine gender agentive nouns.</span>
''&quot;what?&quot;''


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: left;"| proximal


{| class="wikitable c11"
''&quot;this&quot;''
|- class="c17"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">-sōr</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| medial


|- class="c14"
''&quot;that&quot;''
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-sōr</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| distal


|- class="c17"
''&quot;yon&quot;''
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">sg.</span>


| class="c44 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-srés</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| assertive


|- class="c14"
''&quot;some&quot;''
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-sores</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| elective


|- class="c17"
''&quot;any&quot;''
| class="c44"| <span class="c59 c27">Genitive </span><span class="c15 c16">pl.</span>


| class="c44 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-srôm</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| universal


|}
''&quot;every&quot;''


<span id="h.8ltrr6n05lnx"></span>
| style="text-align: left;"| negative
=== <span class="c63">4.5.11                -(n)â</span> ===


<span>The pattern </span><span class="c27">(o)-â</span><span> creates collective or mass nouns, or abstract or action nouns. This conjugates exactly as the thematic </span><span class="c20">ā</span><span>-type is expected to. This can also appear as </span><span class="c27">(∅)-â</span><span class="c12">, with the exact same meaning.</span>
''&quot;no(ne)&quot;''


<span>A slight extension of this is the pattern </span><span class="c27">(o)-nâ</span><span> also creating a deverbal abstract noun.</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| alternative


''&quot;other&quot;''


-----
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| determiner
| style="text-align: center;"| qós?


<span id="h.g69ot0h3y8lj"></span>
qâ?
=== <span class="c63">4.5.12                -iā</span> ===


<span>This is a variation of the feminine ending -ā augmented with -i-, used to create feminine abstract nouns.</span>
qod?


<span id="h.yt759dav5697"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| só
=== <span class="c63">4.5.A                        Combination of suffixes</span> ===


<span>Evidence suggests that some of the above suffixes were combined for various purposes. One example is 4.5.7 with 4.5.4: where </span><span class="c27">-tis</span><span> could be combined with </span><span class="c27">-Hō</span><span> to give </span><span class="c27">-tīō</span><span>, giving Latin </span><span class="c20">-tiō</span><span> and Proto-Celtic </span><span class="c20">-tiyū</span><span>; </span><span class="c27">-tīō </span><span>for example can be used to produce nouns of action or result.</span>
sâ


tod


-----
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénos


<span id="h.uflljs82he9x"></span>
Hénā
== <span class="c41 c16">4.6                        Adjectives</span> ==


<span>Adjectives decline in all three genders, two numbers, and six cases. Their deeclensions follow many of the same patterns that nouns do. In particular, they follow athematic (</span><span class="c27">méǵHs ~ m̥ǵHés</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">méǵHī ~ méǵHīs</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">méǵH ~ méǵH</span><span> &quot;great, large&quot;) or thematic (</span><span class="c27">néwos ~ néwes</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">néwā ~ néwās</span><span>,</span><span class="c27"> néwom ~ néwā</span><span class="c12"> &quot;new&quot;) paradigms using a mixture of the basic masculine-, feminine- and neuter-gender endings given above.</span>
Hénom


<span class="c12">Other adjectival formations are as follows.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nós


<span class="c12"></span>
Hl̥nâ


<span id="h.gr0g29syz3jp"></span>
Hl̥nóm
=== <span class="c63">4.6.1                        Caland system: -onts, -us</span> ===


<span class="c12">The Caland system defines reproducible adjectival paradigms and their root forms for creating basic adjectives. Two common endings are -onts and -us, which ablaut as follows.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Hojwós


<span class="c12"></span>
Hojwâ


{| class="wikitable c11"
Hojwóm
|- class="c14"
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qísqe ~


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
ojnolós


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
qîqe ~


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>
ojnolâ


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
qásqe ~


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
ojnolás


|- class="c14"
qídqe ~
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">-onts</span>


<span class="c9">Nominative</span>
ojnolóm


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-onts</span>
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| sl̥Hwós ~


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-ont</span>
-ôs


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éntī</span>
sl̥Hwâ ~


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-ontes</span>
-âs


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-ontH</span>
sl̥Hwás ~


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éntīs</span>
-ájes


|- class="c17"
sl̥Hwóm ~
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">-onts</span>


<span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>
-â


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-n̥tés</span>
''or''


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-n̥tjâs</span>
wikós


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-n̥tôm</span>
/ -â / -ás


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-n̥tjâōm</span>
/ -óm


|- class="c14"
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| neqós ~
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">-us</span>


<span class="c9">Nominative</span>
neojnolós


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-us</span>
neqâ ~


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-u</span>
neojnolâ


| class="c50 c81"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éwī</span>
neqás ~


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-ewes</span>
neojnolás


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-ū</span>
neqód ~


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éwīs</span>
neojnolóm


|- class="c17"
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| Háljos
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">-us</span>


<span class="c26 c31">Genitive</span>
Háljā


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éws</span>
Háljas


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ujâs</span>
Háljom


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éwōm</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| human
| style="text-align: center;"| qís?


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ujâōm</span>
qî?


|}
qás?


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱís


<span>Although displaying somewhat idiosyncratic ablaut, these declensions are identical to the athematic endings given in </span><span class="c27">4.5</span><span>.</span>
ḱī


ḱás


-----
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱênos


<span id="h.w78f5fasmjle"></span>
ḱênā
=== <span>4.6.2                        </span><span class="c20">Bahuvrihis</span><span class="c63">: -ēs</span> ===


<span>A </span><span class="c20">bahuvrihi</span><span> is a compound word formation indicating possession of a certain quality, or execution of a certain action. These can either be adjectives or nouns in all genders. Its underlying form is </span><span class="c20">*-es-s</span><span class="c12">, due to which it also follows the athematic pattern.</span>
ḱênas


<span>The gendered forms are combined, giving a </span><span class="c20">common-gender</span><span class="c12"> form.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nós


<span class="c12"></span>
Hl̥nâ


{| class="wikitable c11"
Hl̥nás
|- class="c14"
| class="c55"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Cmn. sg.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Hójwos


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Neut. sg.</span>
Hójwā


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Cmn. pl.</span>
Hójwas


| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Neut. pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| object
| style="text-align: center;"| qíd?
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱíd
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱênod
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nóm
| style="text-align: center;"| Hójwom
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| dual
| style="text-align: center;"| qíteros?


|- class="c14"
qíterā?
| class="c55"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative</span>


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(é)-ēs</span>
qíteras?


| class="c49"| <span class="c12">(é)-es</span>
qíterom?


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-eses</span>
''~ qó-''


| class="c55 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ēs</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ''ḱíteros''


|- class="c17"
''etc.''
| class="c55"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive</span>


| class="c136 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(é)-esos</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ →
| style="text-align: center;"| ''Hl̥nóteros''


| class="c136 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c12">(é)-esōm</span>
''etc.''


|}
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ →
| style="text-align: center;"| qíterosqe


<span class="c12"></span>
''~ qó-''


<span id="h.gmxsmolw3xv0"></span>
''etc.''
=== <span class="c63">4.6.3                        Pertinence to a quality: -wénts</span> ===


<span>-wénts creates adjectives which indicate possession of a certain noun as a quality, or pertinence to that noun as a salient description, like </span><span class="c27">Hn̥twént</span><span class="c12"> &quot;limited&quot;.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Hm̥bhô


<span class="c12"></span>
Hm̥bhâH


{| class="wikitable c11"
Hm̥bhój<ref>These forms are indeclinable.</ref>
|- class="c14"
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| neqíteros


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
''~ qó-''


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
''etc.''


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Háljoteros


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
''etc.''


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| location
| style="text-align: center;"| kúr?


|- class="c14"
qór?
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wénts</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱér
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénâḱe
| style="text-align: center;"| ísḱe
| style="text-align: center;"| Hojwâḱe
| style="text-align: center;"| kúrqe


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wént</span>
qórqe


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wéntī</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| wikómḱe
| style="text-align: center;"| nekúr


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wéntes</span>
neqór


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wéntH</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| Háljāḱe
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| source
| style="text-align: center;"| qôdhe?
| style="text-align: center;"| tosjāsdhe
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjāsdhe
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nâsdhe
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qôdheqe
| style="text-align: center;"| wikâsdhe
| style="text-align: center;"| neqôdhe
| style="text-align: center;"| Háljāsdhe
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| goal
| style="text-align: center;"| qómde?
| style="text-align: center;"| tâmde
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāmde
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nâmde
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qómdeqe
| style="text-align: center;"| wikómde
| style="text-align: center;"| neqómde
| style="text-align: center;"| Háljāmdhe
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| time
| style="text-align: center;"| qódō?
| style="text-align: center;"| nú
| style="text-align: center;"| tóqe
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qódōqe
| style="text-align: center;"| wídō
| style="text-align: center;"| neqódō
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| amount


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wéntīs</span>
quantity


|- class="c17"
| style="text-align: center;"| qótjos?
| class="c81"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wn̥tés</span>
qîonts?


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wn̥tjâs</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| tótjos


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wn̥tôm</span>
tâonts


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wn̥tjâōm</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qótjosqe


|}
qîontsqe


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| number
| style="text-align: center;"| qóti?
| style="text-align: center;"| tóti
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qótiqe
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| manner


<span id="h.f6bwri77rdig"></span>
''(instr.)''
=== <span class="c63">4.6.4                        Characteristic or typical of: -ískos, -ānos</span> ===


<span class="c12">These suffixes are cognate with the English -ish and -(i)an, and fulfil the same function: they create adjectives meaning something that is characteristic or typical of a certain noun. </span>
| style="text-align: center;"| qéj?
| style="text-align: center;"| tónō
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ →
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nô
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qéjqe
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| reason


<span class="c12"></span>
''(abl.)''


{| class="wikitable c11"
| style="text-align: center;"| qô?
|- class="c14"
| style="text-align: center;"| tósmōd
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ →
 
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nôd
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qôqe
 
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
|}


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
These forms will be explained below.


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
== 7.1 Determiner and pronoun ==


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
There are differences between determiner forms and pronoun forms. Determiner forms are bound morphemes, and can only be used in conjunction with a nominal. So, '''qós?''' cannot be used independently, but must always be used as '''qós ǵhmô?''' &quot;which person?&quot;.


|- class="c14"
Similarly, the pronoun form can only be used independently, and not to qualify a nominal, such as '''qís cémt?''' &quot;who came?&quot;.
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskós</span>
In addition, the dual forms '''qóteros?''' and '''qíteros?''' also display this distinction: '''qóteros ǵhmô cémt?''' &quot;which of the two people came?&quot; as opposed to '''qíteros cémt?''' &quot;which (of the two) came?&quot;.


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskóm</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskâ</span>
== 7.2 Interrogative and relative forms ==


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskôs</span>
As mentioned in '''2.2''', there is absolute syncretism between the interrogative (question) forms, and relative forms, so the same word will be used for '''qís cémt?''' &quot;who came?&quot; as in '''só ǵhmô qis cémt''' &quot;the person who came&quot;. The difference between the words, as seen in the examples, is that the interrogative forms must be stressed, but the relative forms do not need to be.


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskâ</span>


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskâs</span>
== 7.3 Proximal, medial, distal ==


|- class="c17"
There are three levels of deixis in SAvIE. If one imagines two people speaking to each other, deixis works like this: the ''proximal'' indicates something which is closest to the speaker, the ''medial'' indicates something close to the listener, and the ''distal'' far from both.
| class="c81"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskósjo</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskâs</span>
== 7.4 Location, source, goal ==


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskôm</span>
There is a small difference between these forms. Since ''source'' and ''goal'' are fairly self explanatory (indicating respectively where something comes from and what something goes to), location indicates where something exists statically, and lacks any implication of movement. As such, it tends to be used with '''Héses''' often: '''kúr Hésti ís?''' &quot;where is he?&quot;, whereas the source/goal forms tend to be used often with verbs of motion: '''qôdhe cémt ís?''' &quot;where did he come from?&quot;, and '''qómde Hêjst ís?''' &quot;where did he go to?&quot;.


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-iskâōm</span>
However, colloquially, the location form can be used for both of these: '''kúr cémt ís?''' and '''kúr Hêjst ís?''', especially when the context is clear.


|}


<span class="c12"></span>
= 8 Numerals =


<span class="c27">-ānós</span><span> conjugates as </span><span class="c27">-nós</span><span> does, in </span><span class="c27">4.6.7</span><span>.</span>
There are two major classes of numerals, the cardinal and the ordinal. Cardinal numerals indicate plain numbers, and ordinal numerals indicate the order of a number in a series.




-----
== 8.1 &quot;one&quot; ==


<span id="h.lkjbvuluvxy5"></span>
The number 1 conjugates as a regular adjective. Its base form is '''Hójnos''', which is related to the indefinite article '''Hójwos''', with a suppletive ordinal form '''pr̥Hwós'''.
=== <span class="c63">4.6.5                        Possession of a thing or quality, or having undergone an action: -ātos</span> ===


<span class="c12">The stress pattern is more similar to regular nouns, with the zero or unstressed full grade throughout.</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hójnos


<span class="c12"></span>
Hójnā


{| class="wikitable c11"
Hójnas
|- class="c14"
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
Hójnom


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwós ~ pr̥Hmós


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
pr̥Hwâ


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>
pr̥Hwás


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
pr̥Hwóm


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hójnosjo


|- class="c14"
Hójnās
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātós</span>
Hójnasjo


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātóm</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwósjo


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātâ</span>
pr̥Hwâs


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātôs</span>
pr̥Hwásjo


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātâ</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwôs


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātâs</span>
pr̥Hwâs


|- class="c17"
pr̥Hwájes
| class="c81"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātósjo</span>
pr̥Hwâ


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātâs</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwôm


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātôm</span>
pr̥Hwâōm


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ātâōm</span>
pr̥Hwájōm


|}
|}


<span class="c12"></span>
There is no plural form for the cardinal, since you cannot express one of multiple things.


<span>Any zero-grade adjective extended with </span><span class="c27">-ā-</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">-ī- </span><span class="c12">are declined identically.</span>


<span id="h.gphom0lkqp9c"></span>
== 8.2 &quot;two&quot; ==
=== <span class="c63">4.6.6                        Material or consistency: -īnós</span> ===


<span class="c12">-īnos creates adjectives generally related to a material of which something is made. Stress falls on the suffix at all times, but the root does not need to be zero-grade.</span>
The number 2 does not decline for case, its form is '''dwô''', '''dwâH''', '''dwój(H)''' in cardinal form. Its ordinal form is either '''Hánteros''', '''Hánterā''', '''Hánterom''' (noting the contrastive ending), or '''séqonts''', '''séqontī''', '''séqont''' (from a participial form of the verb '''séqeti''' &quot;to follow&quot;). It also has the special prefix form '''dwi-'''.


<span class="c12"></span>


{| class="wikitable c11"
== 8.3 &quot;three&quot; ==
|- class="c14"
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
Beginning with '''tréjes''' &quot;three&quot;, the ordinal numbers become more regularised. Despite being slightly irregular, these forms do in fact decline as though their nominative singular ended in '''-s''', with the oblique stem '''trí-''' or '''tr̥j-'''. The feminine stem, exceptionally, is '''tisr-''', and also declines as a noun in '''-s'''. It also has the special prefix form '''tri-'''.


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| tritós


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
tritâ


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>
tritás


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
tritóm


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tritósjo


|- class="c14"
tritâs
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">-īnós</span>
tritásjo


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">-īnóm</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tréjes


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">-īnâ</span>
tísres


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">-īnôs</span>
trájes


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">-īnâ</span>
trî


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">-īnâs</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| tritôs


|- class="c17"
tritâs
| class="c81"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">-īnósjo</span>
tritájes


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">-īnâs</span>
tritâ


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">-īnôm</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tr̥jôm


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">-īnâōm</span>
tisrôm


|}
tr̥jájōm


| style="text-align: center;"| tritôm


-----
tritâōm


<span class="c12"></span>
tritájōm


<span id="h.m1tuibz5vbb1"></span>
|}
=== <span class="c63">4.6.7                        Zero-grade adjectives</span> ===


<span class="c12">All the adjectives of this class require a zero-grade root. They are all declined with the following pattern:</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
== 8.3 &quot;four&quot; ==


{| class="wikitable c11"
Similarly to &quot;three&quot;, the number 4 has a feminine stem '''qétesr-''' (oblique '''qetesr-''') and a stem for all other genders '''qetwór-''' (oblique '''qetur-''' and '''qetwr̥-''').
|- class="c14"
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.'''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ⸻
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tós


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
qetwr̥tâ


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
qetwr̥tás


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>
qetwr̥tóm


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tósjo


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
qetwr̥tâs


|- class="c14"
qetwr̥tásjo
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Cós</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwóres


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Cóm</span>
qétesres


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Câ</span>
qetwórajes


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Côs</span>
qetwôr


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Câ</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tôs


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Câs</span>
qetwr̥tâs


|- class="c17"
qetwr̥tásjo
| class="c81"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Cósjo</span>
qetwr̥tâ


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Câs</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.'''
| style="text-align: center;"| qeturôm


| class="c46 c114" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Côm</span>
qetesrôm


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Câōm</span>
qeturájōm


|}
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tôm


<span class="c12"></span>
qetwr̥tâōm


* <span class="c27">(∅)-kós</span><span class="c12">                                of or pertaining to something</span>
qetwr̥tájōm
* <span class="c27">(∅)-lós</span><span class="c12">                                diminutive adjective or noun</span>
* <span class="c27">(∅)-nós        </span><span class="c12">                        capable of (a verb), tending to (verb)</span>
* <span class="c27">(∅)-rós</span><span class="c12">                                basic adjectives in the Caland system</span>
* <span class="c27">(∅)-tós</span><span class="c12">                                past participles</span>
* <span class="c27">(∅)-wós</span><span class="c12">                                basic adjectives from verbs</span>
* <span class="c27">(∅)-jós</span><span class="c12"> (athematic)                        basic adjectives from nouns</span>


* <span>this appears as </span><span class="c27">(é)-jos ~ (é)-josjo</span><span class="c12"> if the noun is thematic</span>
|}


<span id="h.eibcvttef8g3"></span>
=== <span class="c63">4.6.8                        Contrastive adjective</span> ===


<span>The contrastive adjective produces the slightly complex meaning of &quot;something which is X rather than anything else&quot;.</span>
== 8.4 5 to 10 ==


<span class="c12"></span>
These numbers do not decline for gender or case.


{| class="wikitable c11"
{| class="wikitable"
|- class="c14"
|-
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''5'''
| style="text-align: center;"| pénqe
| style="text-align: center;"| penqetós / -â / -óm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''6'''
| style="text-align: center;"| swéḱs
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱstós / -â / -óm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''7'''
| style="text-align: center;"| septḿ̥
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥mós / -â / -óm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''8'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtôw
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtowós / -â / -óm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''9'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnéwn̥
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnewn̥nós / -â / -óm
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''10'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥
| style="text-align: center;"| deḱm̥tós / -â / -óm
|}


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
== 8.5 11 to 19 ==


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
These numbers do not seem to have reconstructible proto-language forms. As such, I am assigning them values with internal morphology: the number '''déḱm̥''', followed by the augment particle '''Hé''', and a number between 1 and 9, such as '''déḱm̥ He Hójnos''' &quot;eleven&quot;, to '''déḱm̥ He Hnéwn̥''' &quot;nineteen&quot;. Alternatively, the numbers can be prefixed unstressed to '''déḱm̥''' as below.


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>
In counting without referring to any specific object, the neuter forms of the numbers 1-4 should be used. When the numbers are used attributively, they should match the gender and number of the following numeral.


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''11'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He Hójnom


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
Hojnodéḱm̥


|- class="c14"
| rowspan="9" style="text-align: center;"| deḱm̥tós / -â / -ás / -óm
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-teros</span>
+


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-terom</span>
''corresponding cardinal numbers''


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-terā</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''12'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He dwójH


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-terōs</span>
dwidéḱm̥


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-terā</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''13'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He trî


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-terās</span>
tridéḱm̥


|- class="c17"
|-
| class="c81"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| '''14'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He qetwôr


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(é)-terosjo</span>
qeturdéḱm̥


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-terās</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''15'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He pénqe


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(é)-terōm</span>
penqedéḱm̥


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-terāōm</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''16'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He swéḱs


|}
sweḱsdéḱm̥


<span id="h.gxhy5h3bl15u"></span>
|-
=== <span class="c63">4.6.9                        Elative adjective</span> ===
| style="text-align: left;"| '''17'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He septḿ̥


<span class="c12">The elative adjectives is one which describes the greatness of something, meaning &quot;very X&quot;.</span>
septm̥déḱm̥


<span class="c12"></span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''18'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He (H)oḱtôw


{| class="wikitable c11"
(H)oḱtōwdéḱm̥
|- class="c14"
| class="c81"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''19'''
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He Hnéwn̥


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
Hnewn̥déḱm̥


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
|}


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
== 8.6 20 to 90 ==


| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
Each multiple of 10 has a unique term, and combines with numbers exactly as '''déḱm̥''' does.


|- class="c14"
{| class="wikitable"
| class="c81"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''20'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (d)wídḱm̥ti
| style="text-align: center;"| (d)widḱm̥tós
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''30'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tridḱómt
| style="text-align: center;"| tridḱm̥tós
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''40'''
| style="text-align: center;"| qétwr̥dḱómt
| style="text-align: center;"| qétwr̥dkm̥tós
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''50'''
| style="text-align: center;"| penqedḱómt
| style="text-align: center;"| penqedḱm̥tós
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''60'''
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱsdḱómt
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱsdḱm̥tós
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''70'''
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥dḱómt
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥dkm̥tós
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''80'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtódḱomt
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtodḱm̥tós
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''90'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnéwn̥dḱomt
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnewn̥dkm̥tós
|}


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-jōs</span>


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-jos</span>
== 8.7 Prefix forms ==


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-jésī</span>
There are special forms used for prefixing numbers to nominals.


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-joses</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1'''
| style="text-align: center;"| sm̥-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2'''
| style="text-align: center;"| dwi-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3'''
| style="text-align: center;"| tri-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''4'''
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''5'''
| style="text-align: center;"| penqe-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''6'''
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱs-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''7'''
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''8'''
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱto-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''9'''
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnewn̥-
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''10, and multiples'''
| style="text-align: center;"| dekm̥-, -dkm̥t-
|}


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(é)-jōs</span>


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-jésīs</span>
== 8.8 Larger numbers ==


|- class="c17"
The numbers 100 and 1,000 are '''ḱm̥tóm''' and '''(sm̥)ǵhéslom''' '''~''' '''tûsonts'''. '''ḱm̥tóm''' and '''(sm̥)ǵhéslom''' are invariable, whereas '''tûsonts''' declines as a regular '''-onts''' noun or adjective. Their ordinal forms are '''ḱm̥tontós''' &quot;hundredth&quot; and '''(sm̥)ǵhelsontós''' '''~''' '''tūsontós''' &quot;thousandth&quot;.
| class="c81"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c37" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-isés</span>
A derivative of '''(sm̥)ǵhéslom''', combined with the augmentative suffix, giving '''(sm̥)ǵhéslōnom''' (shortened from ''*(sm̥)ǵhésloHonom'') is used to mean &quot;million&quot; with the ordinal form '''(sm̥)ǵheslōntós'''; further derivation gives '''disǵhéslōnom''' (ordinal form '''disǵheslōntós'''), meaning &quot;billion&quot; and '''trisǵhéslōnom''' (ordinal form '''trisǵheslōntós''') for &quot;trillion&quot;. Prefix forms can be used even further, giving simple prefixes up to '''deḱm̥ǵhéslōnom''' &quot;decillion&quot;, and much greater numbers up to '''Hnéwn̥dḱomtHnéwn̥ǵhéslōnom''' for &quot;novemnonagintillion&quot;.


| class="c81 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-isjā́s</span>
The connector '''He''' should only be used between tens and units of each group of three numbers. So, the number '''987,654,321''' would be represented as '''Hnéwn̥ ḱm̥tóm Hoḱtodḱómt <u>He</u> septḿ̥ ǵhéslōnā, swéḱs ḱm̥tóm penqedḱómt <u>He</u> qetwôr túsontH, trî ḱm̥tóm (d)wídḱm̥ti <u>He</u> Hójnom'''.


| class="c114 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-isôm</span>


| class="c1"| <span class="c32">(∅)-isjâōm</span>
== 8.9 Multiplicative forms ==


|}
Each number can be given a special multiplicative form, producing an adjective meaning &quot;X times&quot;. Multiplicatives are formed by affixing the special prefix of the numbers 1-10 to the word '''-pléḱs''' &quot;-fold&quot;.


<span id="h.hwuy5rrr8ss8"></span>
For example, 1-4 produce the forms '''sm̥pléḱs''' &quot;single, onefold&quot;, '''dwipléḱs''' &quot;double, twofold&quot;, '''tripléḱs''' &quot;triple, threefold&quot;, and '''qetwr̥pléḱs''' &quot;quadruple, fourfold&quot;.
=== <span class="c63">4.6.10                Verbal participles</span> ===


<span class="c12">These essentially function as adjectives. They use several special forms of the adjective endings listed above in limited functions.</span>


<span id="h.5btx7ffv4b01"></span>
== 8.10 Exceptional &quot;times&quot; forms. ==
==== <span class="c77">4.6.10.1                Present participle</span> ====


<span>The present participle uses the form </span><span class="c27">(é)-onts ~ (∅)-n̥tés</span><span> in thematic verbs, as does the </span><span class="c27">-onts</span><span> form in the Caland system above, and </span><span class="c27">(∅)-ónts ~ (∅)-n̥tés</span><span> in athematic verbs. It is directly equivalent to the English &quot;-ing&quot;. It is used with </span><span class="c27">Héses</span><span> in any tense to indicate continuous tenses, such as </span><span class="c27">Hésmi Hdónts </span><span class="c12">&quot;I am eating&quot;.</span>
The numbers 2 and 3 have the special forms '''dís''' and '''trís''', meaning &quot;twice&quot; and &quot;thrice&quot; respectively.


<span id="h.gln7jdw6n0ou"></span>
==== <span class="c77">4.6.10.2                Past participle</span> ====


<span>The past participle uses the form </span><span class="c27">(∅)-tós ~ (∅)-tósjo</span><span>. As a verbal adjective it essentially means &quot;X-ed&quot;. Although it can be used as an independent adjective, it is perhaps most commonly used in its neuter form with </span><span class="c27">kápes</span><span> &quot;to have, get&quot; in the perfect-tense construction, such as </span><span class="c27">kápmi Hdtóm </span><span class="c12">&quot;I have eaten&quot;.</span>
== 8.11 Collective forms ==


<span id="h.pbxzrnynqhkq"></span>
A collective numeral is one which specifies &quot;a group of X&quot;. The first form is '''dwôdwō''', meaning &quot;pair&quot;. The rest are formed by suffixing '''-ō''' to the prefix form of a number, with an intervening '''-l-''' (as if from '''-lós''') to prevent hiatus. The stress falls on the prefix in the nominative-vocative-accusative, and the ending in the oblique, as expected for '''-ō'''. This gives '''tríō''' &quot;trio, threesome&quot;, '''qetwŕ̥ō''' &quot;quartet, foursome&quot;, '''qénqelō''' &quot;quintet, fivesome&quot;, '''swéḱsō''' &quot;sextet&quot;, '''septḿ̥ō''' &quot;septet&quot;, '''(H)oḱtólō''' &quot;octet&quot;, '''Hnéwnō''' &quot;nonet&quot;, and '''déḱmō''' &quot;dectet&quot;. Using prefixed numbers makes forms such as '''dwidéḱmō''' &quot;dozen&quot;. The larger numbers give '''ḱm̥tolō''' &quot;group of a hundred&quot;, '''(sm̥)ǵhéslō ~ tûsontō''' &quot;group of a thousand&quot;, and '''(sm̥)ǵhéslōnō''' &quot;group of a million&quot; with derivatives thereof.
==== <span class="c77">4.6.10.3                Passive participle</span> ====


<span>Unlike </span><span class="c27">-tós</span><span>, which is active in meaning, the passive participle indicates something which &quot;has been X-ed&quot;. Its form is </span><span class="c27">(é)-om(H)nos ~ (∅)-óm(H)nosjo</span><span> in thematic verbs, an </span><span class="c27">(∅)-m̥(H)nós ~ (∅)-m̥(H)nósjo</span><span> in athematic verbs. It is also used with </span><span class="c27">Héses</span><span> to construct passive verb forms, such as </span><span class="c27">Hésmi Hdm̥Hnós</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I am eaten, I have been eaten&quot;.</span>


<span id="h.clo55dyd91vu"></span>
== 8.12 Case agreement ==
==== <span class="c77">4.6.10.4                Stative-type past participle</span> ====


<span>This participle is a special type with optional initial reduplication: masculine </span><span class="c27">(é)-(∅)-wōs ~ (é)-(∅)-usos</span><span>, feminine </span><span class="c27">(é)-(∅)-usī ~ (e)-(∅)-usjâs</span><span>, neuter </span><span class="c27">(é)-(∅)-wos ~ (é)-(∅)-usos</span><span>.</span>
The numbers 1,3, and 4, given that they decline, are used attributively as though they were adjectives, meaning the noun which they count can be in any case, and the case of the number and noun must agree: '''Hójnos wīrós''' &quot;one man&quot;, '''tr̥jôm wīrôm''' &quot;of three men&quot;, '''qetwr̥mós wīrómos''' &quot;(for/to) four men&quot;. Since other numbers do not decline, only the noun which they modify declines according to the function of the main noun: '''éǵ wélō pénqe wīróms''' &quot;I see five men&quot;.


<span id="h.xayuwfusyyym"></span>
==== <span class="c77">4.6.10.5                Perfect participle</span> ====


<span>Although Ancient Greek and Sanskrit had a perfect participle, such a formation would be against the spirit of SAE, which specifies a perfect-tense formation using the &quot;have&quot; verb. As such, there is no dedicated perfect participle; rather, a perfect participial formation involves the present participle of </span><span class="c27">kápes</span><span> and a past participle of another verb, such as </span><span class="c27">kapónts wl̥tóm</span><span> &quot;having seen&quot;.</span>
= 9 Prepositions =


Prepositions in SAvIE always precede the nominal which they modify; they will always be placed before nouns and adjectives. They govern only one of two cases: the locative for prepositions which imply location at, near, or in relation to something, and the accusative for motion to or from, and everything else. So, prepositions such as '''Hén''' &quot;in&quot; can be used with different cases to modify their meaning, as in '''Hén dém''' &quot;in a house&quot; and '''Hén dôm''' &quot;into a house&quot;.


-----
Positional adverbs, such as '''déḱs''' &quot;(on the) right&quot;, can also be used, requiring the genitive: '''déḱs tosjo déms''' &quot;to/on the right of the house&quot;.


<span id="h.z5ijwchl12di"></span>
Below is a list of prepositions and positional adverbs and their meanings with the cases they govern.
== <span class="c41 c16">4.7                        Adjective comparison</span> ==


<span class="c12">Adjectives can be further declined in two degrees: the comparative and the superlative. The comparative produces adjectives meaning &quot;more X&quot;, while the superlative produces &quot;the most X&quot;.</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Preposition'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Meaning'''
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Preposition'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Meaning'''
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''bhêǵhs'''
| style="text-align: center;"| without
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hpó'''
| style="text-align: center;"| from
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''dê'''
| style="text-align: center;"| from


<span id="h.wy84njt1r0x2"></span>
of
=== <span class="c63">4.7.1                        Comparative adjective</span> ===


<span>The comparative adjective degree can be expressed either with the contrastive </span><span class="c27">-teros</span><span> or elative </span><span class="c27">-yōs</span><span> ending. The comparative element translating to &quot;than&quot; is expressed with </span><span class="c27">Hánti</span><span> &quot;against&quot;, and the noun being compared against is placed in the dative, for example </span><span class="c27">ís Hésti Hl̥tóteros ~ Hl̥tójōs Hánti méǵhjo</span><span class="c12"> &quot;he is taller than me&quot;.</span>
thanks to


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hpós'''
| style="text-align: center;"| after
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''déḱs'''
| style="text-align: center;"| on/to the right
| style="text-align: right;"| '''ḱóm'''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| with (using, in the company of)
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''énu'''
| style="text-align: center;"| after


<span id="h.w1qcg53441b8"></span>
along
=== <span class="c63">4.7.2                        Superlative adjective</span> ===


<span>The superlative degree expresses &quot;the most X&quot;. As such, it is always used with the article </span><span class="c27">só</span><span class="c12">.</span>
| style="text-align: right;"| '''me'''
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''(H)éti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| beyond
| style="text-align: right;"| '''pér'''
| style="text-align: center;"| through, via, by means of
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hén'''
| style="text-align: center;"| in


<span>For ease, I have opted to reduce the potential superlative adjective endings to two, discounting those reconstructions with a laryngeal. The adjective is formed in one of two ways: </span><span class="c27">(∅)-otm̥mós</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">(∅)-istós</span><span class="c12">. The former is used for thematic adjectives, whereas the latter is used for athematic adjectives.</span>
into


<span class="c12"></span>
| style="text-align: right;"| '''péri'''
| style="text-align: center;"| about, regarding, because of
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Héǵhs'''
| style="text-align: center;"| out (of)


{| class="wikitable c11"
out (from)
|- class="c14"
| class="c84"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>
| style="text-align: right;"| '''préti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| towards
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Heǵhstós'''
| style="text-align: center;"| outside of
| style="text-align: right;"| '''préj'''
| style="text-align: center;"| in front of
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Héǵhsteros'''
| style="text-align: center;"| besides, other than
| style="text-align: right;"| '''pró'''
| style="text-align: center;"| before, in front of


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
to(ward), up to


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hentér'''
| style="text-align: center;"| between
| style="text-align: right;"| '''sn̥(H)tér'''
| style="text-align: center;"| separate from


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>
without


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hépi'''
| style="text-align: center;"| on, upon, at (sea etc.), on (animals etc.)


| class="c146"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
onto


|- class="c14"
| style="text-align: right;"| '''swéd'''
| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| without
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dó'''
| style="text-align: center;"| into
| style="text-align: right;"| '''tr̥Hás'''
| style="text-align: center;"| across, along, through
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dóm'''
| style="text-align: center;"| inside of, within
| style="text-align: right;"| '''úd'''
| style="text-align: center;"| upwards


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥mós</span>
above


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥móm</span>
+ ''Hád'' going up to


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥mâ</span>
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dhér'''
| style="text-align: center;"| beneath, underneath
| style="text-align: right;"| '''upér(i)'''
| style="text-align: center;"| above, over
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dhí'''
| style="text-align: center;"| under


| class="c84 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥môs</span>
to the bottom of


| class="c84 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥mâ</span>
| style="text-align: right;"| '''upó'''
| style="text-align: center;"| under
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hád'''
| style="text-align: center;"| at


| class="c146 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥mâs</span>
to(wards)


|- class="c17"
| style="text-align: right;"| '''wí'''
| class="c84"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| away from


| class="c132 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥mósjo</span>
against


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥mâs</span>
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hánt(i)'''
| style="text-align: center;"| opposite
| style="text-align: right;"| '''wír'''
| style="text-align: center;"| without
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hapó'''
| style="text-align: center;"| away from


| class="c132 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥môm</span>
away from


| class="c146 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-otm̥mâōm</span>
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Háwti'''
| style="text-align: center;"| either / or
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
|-
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hm̥bhí'''
| style="text-align: center;"| around, surrounding


|- class="c17"
about, regarding
| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istós</span>
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
|}


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istóm</span>


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istâ</span>
= 10 Discourse =


| class="c84 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istôs</span>
The most important addition to this basic overview of grammar is discursive words; those which can be used to carry and shape conversations.


| class="c84 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istâ</span>


| class="c146 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istâs</span>
== 10.1 Questions and particles ==


|- class="c17"
Ordinarily, questions in SAvIE need not be marked either at the start or the end of the sentence. As per '''3.1''', questions are indicated by inverting the subject and verb: '''ís cémt''' &quot;he came&quot; becomes '''cémt is?''' &quot;did he come?&quot;. When using pro-forms, these start the sentence: '''qís Hésti ís?''' &quot;who is he?&quot;.
| class="c84"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c132 c50" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istósjo</span>
However, the word '''Hár ~ Hr̥''', meaning &quot;so&quot; or &quot;thus&quot; in positive sentences, can be used to introduce a sentence: '''Hár qís Hésti ís?''' &quot;so who is he?&quot;.


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istâs</span>
In addition, the phrase '''né Hésti…?''' &quot;isn't it…?&quot; can be used with the regular statement to form a yes/no question in one of two ways: firstly, it can be used to introduce a subordinate clause, as in '''né Hésti, qid ís cémt?''' &quot;isn't it [the case] that he came?&quot;; the second is that it can be used as a tag question at the end of a sentence, as in '''ís cémt, né Hésti?''' &quot;he came, isn't it?&quot;.


| class="c46 c132" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istôm</span>
The simple responses to yes/no questions is '''nójnom''', '''né tód''', or '''Hóju qíd''' &quot;no&quot;, and the positive is '''já ~ sejḱe ~ tód'''. There is no fundamental difference between any of these words; they have different origins and can be used depending on the speaker's preference for their source. For example, '''nójnom''' is a shortening of '''né (H)ójnom''', from Latin ''nōn'', whereas '''Hóju qíd''' is the form of Greek ''οὐ(κ) ~ οὐ(χ)'' and Armenian ''ոչ''; meanwhile, '''já''' is ubiquitous in Germanic, '''séjḱe''' also from Latin ''sīc'', and '''(né)''' '''tód''' as seen in Celtic languages, such as Welsh ''do ~ naddo''.


| class="c46 c146"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istâōm</span>
In addition to the simple answers, SAvIE can produce yes/no answers to polar questions by repeating the verb either in a positive or negative polarity. If the question were '''cémt ís?''' &quot;did he come?&quot;, a positive response would be '''cémt''' &quot;he came (yes)&quot;, and a negative response would be '''né(ghe) cémt''' &quot;he didn't come (no)&quot;. Note that the negative particle here can either be '''né''' or '''néghe'''; the '''-ghe''' suffix intensifies the previous particle.


|}


<span class="c12"></span>
== 10.2 Subordinate clauses ==


<span>Although this table describes each form as using a zero-grade root because the stress shifts to the ending, the root can also be made e-grade in all cases.</span>
These can be introduced in one of two ways.


The first is introducing an entirely independent subordinate clause with the word '''qid''', such as in '''éǵ wéjdō, qid ís cémt''' &quot;I know that he came&quot;.


-----
Clauses that are more semantically linked to the antecedent use interrogative-relative pronouns: '''só wīrós, qésjo cên cémt…''' &quot;the man, whose wife came…&quot;, literally &quot;the man, of whom [the] wife came…&quot;.


<span id="h.9le42ec3cdid"></span>
=== <span class="c63">4.7.3                        Absolute superlative adjective</span> ===


<span>The superlative can be augmented further, in order to create the absolute superlative, which holds even more force than the superlative. It is a combination of both superlative adjective forms, giving </span><span class="c27">(∅)-istm̥mós</span><span>. It declines exactly as </span><span class="c27">-otm̥mós</span><span class="c12"> does.</span>
== 10.3 Hypothetical sentences ==


<span class="c12"></span>
Hypothetical sentences are introduced by '''sô ~ séj''' &quot;if&quot;, which is an innovated and fossilized thematicisation of '''só''' in the instrumental and locative cases, respectively, meaning &quot;with this&quot; or &quot;in this&quot;. This is modelled on the etymology of the Latin ''sī''. '''mā''' can be used as in Celtic, '''jéj''' as in Baltic, or '''qéj''' as in some Slavic. None of these words differs in meaning.


{| class="wikitable c11"
The consequence can be introduced without any particle, but can also optionally be introduced with the particle '''tómḱe''' &quot;then, in that case&quot;, or '''tóqe''' &quot;then&quot;.
|- class="c14"
| class="c84"| <span class="c32"></span>


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Masc. sg.</span>


| class="c126"| <span class="c9">Neut. sg.</span>
=== 10.3.1 Conditionals ===


| class="c83"| <span class="c9">Fem. sg.</span>
The verb '''skéles''' &quot;to owe&quot; should be used in the deponent aorist subjunctive to form a periphrastic conditional tense with the purportative, thus giving '''séj ís cémt, éǵ skêlsōr kápos wl̥Htóm welos ím''' &quot;If he came, I would have wanted to see him&quot;. When there are two verbs that require the purportative in a row, one is in the accusative '''(é)-os''' form, and the second is in the genitive '''(é)-esos''' form: '''séj ís cémti, éǵ skêlsōr wélHos wélesos ím''' &quot;If he comes, I would want to see him&quot;. Literally this means something like &quot;...that I owe wanting of seeing&quot;.


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Masc. pl.</span>


| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Neut. pl.</span>
== 10.4 Negation of nominals ==


| class="c137"| <span class="c9">Fem. pl.</span>
Nominals must be negated by the particle '''néghe''' &quot;not&quot;; this can be attached directly to nominals, such as '''néghe méǵHs''' &quot;not great&quot;, or '''néghe wīrós''' &quot;not a man&quot;. Determiners can also precede the nominal: '''néghe só wīrós''' &quot;not the/this man&quot;.


|- class="c14"
| class="c84"| <span class="c9">Nominative</span>


| class="c84 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥mós</span>
== 10.5 Either/or ==


| class="c126 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥móm</span>
&quot;Either&quot; and &quot;or&quot; are both expressed by the word '''Háwti''': '''Háwti cm̥dhí ḱóm mé, Háwti méne''' &quot;either come with me, or stay&quot;.


| class="c50 c83"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥mâ</span>


| class="c84 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥môs</span>
== 10.6 Prohibition ==


| class="c84 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥mâ</span>
In conjunction with the imperative verb form, the particle '''mê''' &quot;do not…!&quot; (from ''*meh₁'' as seen in Greek ''μή'') is used to express prohibition: '''Hidhí!''' &quot;go!&quot; becomes '''mê Hidhí!''' &quot;do not go!&quot;


| class="c137 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥mâs</span>


|- class="c17"
== 10.7 Conjunctions ==
| class="c84"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive</span>


| class="c50 c103" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥mósjo</span>


| class="c83 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥mâs</span>
=== 10.7.1 Addition ===


| class="c132 c46" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥môm</span>
Following the presence of ''A and B'' constructions in SAE, this is the preferred structure for the ''and'' construction. Rather than using the Proto-Indo-European ''*-kʷe'' suffix, alternative strategies are preferred. These are '''Hé''' (the augment ''*h₁é''), '''ḱḿ̥ti''' (modelled on the Greek ''καί''), '''Héti''' (modelled on the Latin ''et''), '''Hánti''' (synonymous with the preposition, modelled on Proto-Germanic ''*andi''), '''Héj''' (modelled on Proto-Slavic ''*i''), or '''Hṓd''' (modelled on Proto-Balto-Slavic ''*ō'', based on a hypothetical ablative PIE form ''*h₁ōd'').


| class="c137 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-istm̥mâōm</span>
&quot;Also&quot; can be expressed with '''qōdqe''', a fossilised ablative of a thematicisation of '''qís''', meaning approximately &quot;and from which&quot;, or '''Héwghe''' (modelled on Proto-Germanic ''*auk'').


|}


=== 10.7.2 Consequence ===


-----
Consequence in the form of &quot;then&quot; or &quot;so&quot; is expressed with '''tôd''', yet another fossilised ablative of a thematicised '''só ~ sâ ~ tód''', such as '''éǵ cêm, tôd ís lêjqst''' &quot;I came, then he left&quot;.


<span class="c12"></span>


<span id="h.hyj409sqhjf"></span>
=== 10.7.3 Purpose, intent ===
= <span class="c89 c109">5                        Verbs</span> =


<span class="c12">SAvIE verbs are complex, but with fewer irregularities than Proto-Indo-European's daughter languages. SAvIE in particular takes the feature of the &quot;have&quot;-perfect tense and expands the concept to include multiple periphrastic tenses and verb forms, including all continuous tenses, and all passive forms.</span>
An intended consequence, expressing &quot;so that&quot; or &quot;in order to&quot;, is expressed with a similar form to the above, '''téj''', a thematicised dative meaning &quot;to this&quot;, and a subordinate clause introduced by '''qid''' with the verb in the subjunctive, such as '''éǵ qrêjHsm̥ tód, téj qid tû Hédesi íd''' &quot;I bought this so you could eat it&quot;.


<span>SAvIE verbs are divided into two kinds: </span><span class="c20">conjugated</span><span> and </span><span class="c20">periphrastic</span><span>. Conjugated forms are ones to which a suffix is attached to form a directly usable tense. Periphrastic forms involve a conjugated form of one of a limited selection of verbs, along with a </span><span class="c20">particle</span><span class="c12">. Particles themselves are one of four non-finite forms which indicate tense and aspect.</span>


<span id="h.k7owlq7ru627"></span>
=== 10.7.4 Alternatives ===
== <span class="c41 c16">5.1                        Non-finite forms, and infinitive</span> ==


<span>It should not be necessary to revise non-finite forms, as they are all described in </span><span class="c27">4.6.8</span><span>. Two forms not described there are the </span><span class="c20">infinitive</span><span>, which is used simply to name the verb, the </span><span class="c20">supine</span><span>, used only in special verb constructions, and the </span><span class="c20">purportative</span><span class="c12">, used with verbs of wanting, owing, or intending.</span>
The basic words &quot;or&quot; and &quot;nor&quot; are expressed by '''íwe ~ íwē''' or '''éjwe ~ éjwē''' (based on ''*i-'' and ''*ey-'' as pronominal bases) in the positive polarity ('''éǵ íwe tû''' &quot;I or you&quot;) and '''néwe''' in the negative ('''néghe éǵ néwe tû''' &quot;not I nor you, not me and not you&quot;).


<span>The infinitive takes the form </span><span class="c27">(é)-es</span><span>, and is a shortened locative form of the purportative </span><span class="c27">(é)-os</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">(é)-esos</span><span class="c12">, which creates result or action nouns. This makes it cognate with the Ancient Greek (-ειν) and Latin (-ere) infinitives.</span>
'''-we ~ -wē''' can also be suffixed to any words meaning &quot;if&quot; to produce &quot;but if&quot; or &quot;if, on the other hand&quot;: '''séjwe né cémti ís, qíd tôd?''' &quot;but if he doesn't come, what then?&quot;.


<span>For deponents, the infinitive is formed with </span><span class="c27">(∅)-és</span><span>, and the purportatives </span><span class="c27">(é)-osm̥</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">(∅)-sés</span><span class="c12">.</span>


<span>The supine takes the form </span><span class="c27">(∅)-ént</span><span>, also a locative form, of the present participle </span><span class="c27">-onts</span><span>. For deponents, it is </span><span class="c27">(∅)-tój</span><span>. It is used in combination with verbs of motion in order to indicate purpose, such as </span><span class="c27">ís cémt Had wl̥ént mé</span><span class="c12"> &quot;he came to see me&quot;.</span>
=== 10.7.5 Exceptions ===


<span id="h.d2nhmdsul9go"></span>
The word &quot;but&quot; can be expressed either as '''íde ~ éjde''' (using the Proto-Indo-European ''*de'' contrastive particle) or '''Heǵhstós''' (modelled on the Greek ''εχτός'' and Proto-Celtic ''*extos'') at the beginning of a phrase, and the postclitic '''de''' otherwise to indicate a break in a sentence. Since it breaks a sentence apart, the part of the sentence ending '''de''' is considered disjunct, and can refer either to a subject or an object. The case of the preceding nominal can match its function in the following sentence.
== <span class="c41 c16">5.2                        Conjugated forms</span> ==


<span>Verbs each conjugate in multiple tenses, each of which has three persons (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), two numbers (singular and plural) and two moods (indicative and optative). In total there are four tenses: the </span><span class="c20">nonpast</span><span> (which encompasses the present and, optionally, future), the </span><span class="c20">imperfect</span><span> (semantically identical to the past continuous, but used especially in certain constructions), the </span><span class="c20">aorist</span><span> (or </span><span class="c20">preterite</span><span>, or </span><span class="c20">simple past</span><span>), and the </span><span class="c20">habitual</span><span class="c12"> (which is technically tenseless).</span>
So, in '''só Háljos/tóm Háljom de, né wêlsm̥ éǵ ím''' &quot;the other one, however, I didn't see it&quot;, note the presence of both '''Háljos''' and '''Háljom''', both of which are treated slightly differently. In the nominative, the phrase ending '''de''' is treated more as a topic and the antecedent as a comment; in the accusative, it is treated as a disjunct object rather than a topic, and matches its expected function in the antecedent.


<span>All conjugated forms use one of two sets of endings, called the </span><span class="c20">primary</span><span> and </span><span class="c20">secondary</span><span>. Primary endings indicate the nonpast tense, and secondary endings most others. Each set of endings can be either </span><span class="c20">thematic</span><span> or </span><span class="c20">athematic</span><span>.</span>


== 10.8 Politeness and formality ==


-----
Several strategies can be employed to introduce formality to SAvIE. The majority of these should be limited to forms of address, but some others exist.


<span class="c12"></span>


{| class="wikitable c11"
=== 10.8.1 T-V distinction ===
|- class="c17"
| class="c92"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c154" colspan="2"| <span class="c15 c16">Primary</span>
Although many modern Indo-European languages employ a T-V distinction, it is best avoided in SAvIE. However, usage thereof should not be considered entirely incorrect. If a speaker chooses to use a T-V distinction, the expected follows: the 2nd person plural forms take the place of the singular forms in polite speech. So, one person is referred to politely as '''jû''' rather than '''tû''', and verbs and adjectives are inflected in the plural rather than the singular. This turns the informal '''tû Hési méǵHs''' “you are tall” into '''jû Hsté méǵHas'''.


| class="c154" colspan="2"| <span class="c15 c16">Secondary</span>


|- class="c14"
=== 10.8.2 Third person verb constructions ===
| class="c92"| <span class="c12"></span>


| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">Thematic</span>
Rather than using the second-person plural for a more classically Indo-European T-V distinction, the third person can be used as it is employed in various modern languages. This category includes some formations innovated by SAvIE.


| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">Athematic</span>


| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">Thematic</span>
==== 10.8.2.1 Praising the listener ====


| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">Athematic</span>
This follows the pattern of the Spanish ''usted'', which is derived from ''vuestra merced'' “your mercy”. As the etymology of ''merced'' is so opaque, it has been discarded entirely. Instead, many synonymous constructions can be built from '''cérHtis''' “praise, grace”, whose root '''cérH-''' gives the Latin ''grātia''.


|- class="c148"
This can optionally be supplemented with a second-person possessive adjective '''tós''' (or any of its variants, if avoiding T-V) or '''usós''' (if using T-V), giving '''tâ cérHtis''' or '''usâ cérHtis'''. The resulting phrase then inflects in its entirety. This is then used with a third-person verb.
| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">1st person singular</span>


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-ō</span>


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-mi</span>
==== 10.8.2.2 Invariant third-person plural ====


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-om</span>
The pronoun '''î''', along with the third-person plural verbal forms, can be used to refer to a single person politely.


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-m̥</span>


|- class="c14"
==== 10.8.2.3 Alternative pronominal forms ====
| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-esi</span>
The pronoun '''ḱénos / -ā / -as''', declined according to both case and number depending on the number of referents, can be used with the corresponding verbal number of the third person in polite speech. In addition to the above established pronoun, the neologism '''(H)irós / -â / -ás''', an adjectival form modelled on the third-person pronouns '''ís / î / jás''' can be used as a polite second-person pronoun. This also declines as expected, giving '''(H)irôs / -âs / -ájes''' for multiple referents.


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-si</span>


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-es</span>
=== 10.8.3 Titles and forms of address ===


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-s</span>
People can be referred to with titles attached to their names, in addition to the formal verb constructions given above. The title ''Mister'' and its cognates can be given as '''méǵHisteros / -ā / -as''', while common Romance terms ''señor, signore, monsieur'' are given as '''sénjōs / sn̥jésī / -josas'''.


|- class="c14"
Due to a close proximity to the meanings of their individual stems, the former should be reserved for distinguished persons with some form of appointed title, and the latter for older people. A much more neutral but familiar term would be '''soqHjós / -â / -ás''', cognate with Latin ''socius''. A less familiar form would be '''Hwésus / Huséwī / Huséwy'''.
| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">3rd person singular</span>


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-eti</span>
Each of these titles is abbreviated, respectively, '''m.''', '''s.''', '''so.''', and '''u.'''


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-ti</span>


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-et</span>
= 11 Further rules and conventions of writing =


| class="c92 c50"| <span class="c12">-t</span>


|- class="c14"
== 11.1 Writing system ==
| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">1st person plural</span>


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-omos</span>
The default writing system in this document has been the Latin script, but this need not necessarily be the case. In '''Appendix D''' there is a full alphabet shown with the Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Armenian, and Devanagari scripts, all of which can be used effectively to write SAvIE. For ease and universality, the Latin alphabet may be preferred, but this Appendix allows for a wider range of writing.


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-mós</span>


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-ome</span>
== 11.2 Case ==


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-mé</span>
SAvIE should be written entirely unicase. This means that there should be no distinction made between lowercase and uppercase letters. Although the letters ⟨h⟩ and ⟨H⟩ both exist in the Latin alphabet, it should be noted that these are two different letters with two different functions, not merely variants of one another. Common usages of capital letters in some languages, such as indicating proper nouns, are not treated specially in SAvIE, and should all be written lowercase.


|- class="c14"
This being said, this might be a difficult habit to break for some users. The practice should be avoided as per the standards of this document, but should not be seen as incorrect otherwise.
| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">2nd person plural</span>


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-ete</span>


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-té</span>
== 11.3 Clause- and sentence-final punctuation ==


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-ete</span>
In all alphabets, natively-used punctuation should be employed. Where applicable, the comma ⟨,⟩ and period ⟨.⟩ should be used to indicate a break in and termination of a sentence, respectively. The relevant question and exclamation marks should also serve their respective purposes.


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-té</span>


|- class="c14"
== 11.4 Quotation ==
| class="c92"| <span class="c15 c16">3rd person plural</span>


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-onti</span>
For block quotation, such as lines of dialogue, an em-dash ⟨—⟩ should be used for each line of dialogue, followed either by a double space, or a tab stop.


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-énti</span>
For inline quotation, a double guillemet ⟨« »⟩ should wrapped around a quotation, and a nested quotation within that should be marked with a single guillemet ⟨‹ ›⟩.


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-ont</span>
This usage can be mirrored with quotation marks, directional or otherwise. Double quotation marks ⟨&quot; &quot;⟩ ⟨“ ”⟩ enclose the main quotation, with single marks ⟨' '⟩ ⟨‘ ’⟩ enclosing a nested quotation.


| class="c92 c46"| <span class="c12">-ént</span>
In addition, lowered quotation marks can be used as in German and Slavic languages, either both low ⟨„ „⟩, or high and low ⟨„ ”⟩, with single marks ⟨‚ ‚⟩ and ⟨‚ ’⟩ for nested quotes. It is strongly preferred that the direction of punctuation marks conform to the above examples, but inverting one or both (such as ⟨» «⟩ or ⟨„ “⟩) should not be considered incorrect.


|}


<span class="c12"></span>
== 11.5 Larger breaks ==


<span class="c12">Whether a verb is thematic or not is unpredictable, and must be learnt on a case-by-case basis.</span>
Any piece of text above a sentence can be broken up with special typographical conventions.


<span id="h.dd8hl0z6ldf8"></span>
Paragraphs are broken by a single newline character, with new paragraphs optionally beginning with a tab stop. Collections of paragraphs can be broken up into logical groups by beginning the paragraph of a new logical group with the section symbol '''§''' followed by a tab stop. Groups of sections can be divided by placing an asterism symbol '''⁂''' on its own line, and beginning a new paragraph on a new line afterwards as expected. The asterism can optionally be padded with an extra empty line on either side of it.
=== <span class="c63">5.2.1                        Nonpast</span> ===


<span>The nonpast combines both the present and future tenses. The simple future has an additional periphrastic tense, but the simple present does not. It is indicated by the primary endings.</span>


= 12 Borrowing and conversion to SAvIE =


-----
Borrowing from other languages forms an integral part of the function of all Indo-European languages; whether through language contact, colonial or imperial superstrata or adstrata, archaism, or scientific and technical vocabulary, borrowing is crucial in the formation of a wider vocabulary.


<span>The first model is of </span><span class="c27">bhéres</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to bear, carry&quot;. It is a root thematic verb.</span>
The strategies for borrowing words into SAvIE is that they must preferably be nativised, using known etymologies to convert words into SAvIE as though they had originated their to begin with. Where this cannot be done, or where it would not be appropriate to do so, words can be borrowed in directly, using SAvIE phonology where possible, and several additions to the alphabet where not possible.


<span class="c12"></span>


{| class="wikitable c11"
== 12.1 Sounds foreign to SAvIE ==
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Thematic nonpast verb</span>


| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
All sounds native to the language have been listed at the very start of this document. However, these do not encompass all possible sounds that could be represented in SAvIE for borrowings. Extra consonant sounds and their corresponding graphs are as follows.


| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Sound'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Graph'''
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /f/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨f⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /ɣ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ǥ⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /h/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ħ⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /x/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨x⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /ʃ/, /tʃ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨š⟩, ⟨tš⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /ʒ/, /dʒ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ž⟩, ⟨dž⟩, ⟨ǰ⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /v/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨v⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /z/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨z⟩
|}


|- class="c18"
Uvular sounds such as [q], [χ], and [ʁ] can be converted to their non-uvular counterparts [k], [x], [r ~ ɾ ~ ɹ].
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>


| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ō</span>
In addition, the following vowel sounds can be used:


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérō </span><span class="c24 c20">I bear</span>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Sound'''
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Graph'''
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /æ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ä⟩


|- class="c18"
⟨ā̈⟩ when long
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-esi</span>
⟨a̋⟩ when stressed


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhéresi </span><span class="c24 c20">you bear</span>
⟨ä̂⟩ when stressed and long


|- class="c18"
|-
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
| style="text-align: center;"| /ə ~ ɜ/ and similar, when non-native
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ë⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /ɨ ~ ɯ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ï⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /ø ~ œ/ and similar
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ö⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| /y ~ ʏ/ and similar
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ü⟩
|-
| style="text-align: center;"| Any nasal vowel
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ã ẽ ĩ⟩ etc.
|}


| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-eti</span>
Non-native sounds should only be spelled using the above alternative characters where it is necessary or especially desirable to represent non-native pronunciation. This really need only be the case in words which are nativised, or for educational purposes. When writing the names of people, places, and things, and when those are not integrated into SAvIE, their official spelling or transliteration should be used instead.


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhéreti </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it bears</span>
Equally, words which are grammaticalised can be spelt with nativised phonology. This is often a simple matter of finding the closest representative sounds which exist in SAvIE, but can present some difficulties. In particular, given the lack of fricative sounds /f v h/, the sounds ⟨bh gh⟩ can be used instead.


|- class="c18"
So, for example, the French word ''bureau'' could be borrowed in as any of the following:
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>


| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-omos</span>
* '''bűro, büró''': indeclinable, with foreign phonology
* '''bűrō, bürô''': declinable as a masculine '''-ō''' noun, with foreign phonology


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhéromos </span><span class="c24 c20">we bear</span>
* '''bjúro, bjuró''': indeclinable, with native phonology
* '''bjúrō, bjurô''': declinable as a masculine '''-ō''' noun, with native phonology


|- class="c18"
in addition to the borrowed spelling and pronunciation '''bureau'''.
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>


| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ete</span>
Note also how the non-native stress pattern is subject to interpretation in how it is represented in SAvIE.


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérete </span><span class="c24 c20">you (pl.) bear</span>
In addition, the grammatical pattern that this word has been made to fit is purely representative. It could just as easily be '''bűros ~ bűrosjo''', '''bűrom ~ bűrosjo''', or even '''bűros ~ bűresos'''. Ideally, the chosen form should represent the original word and, if applicable, its declension pattern as best as possible.


|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>


| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-onti</span>
== 12.2 Borrowed morphology ==


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhéronti </span><span class="c24 c20">they bear</span>
Some morphology, such as affixes in particular, is so commonly shared between languages as to be worth borrowing into SAvIE. Affixes in particular can form large quantities of vocabulary and can, with some modification and filling in by analogy, be nativised into SAvIE for use in new vocabulary.


|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Original suffix'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cognates'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Form in SAvIE'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-άζω''
| style="text-align: left;"|
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-adjeti ''v.''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-(ο)-ειδής''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-oid''
| style="text-align: left;"| (e)-wéjdēs ~ (é)-wéjdesos ''adj.''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-ίζω''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ize / -ise''
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-idjeti ''v.''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr ''-ισμός''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ism''
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-ismós ''n.m''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-ιστής''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ist''
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idtās ''n.m/n.f''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-λογία''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-logy''
| style="text-align: left;"| =lògiā (close compound) ''n.f''


<span class="c12"></span>
lógiā (loose compound) ''n.f''


<span>This model is </span><span class="c27">Hédes</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to eat&quot;. It is a root athematic verb.</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-λόγος''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-logue''
| style="text-align: left;"| =logòs (close) ''n.m''


<span class="c12"></span>
logós (loose) ''n.m''


{| class="wikitable c11"
|-
|- class="c18"
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-(η)τής''
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Athematic nonpast verb</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ete''
| style="text-align: left;"| -tās ~ -tās (&lt; -tāos) ''n.m/n.f''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr ''-φιλία''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-philia''
| style="text-align: left;"| =bhìliā (close) ''n.f''


| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Model</span>
bhíliā (loose) ''n.f''


| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Example</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr ''-φιλος''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-phile''
| style="text-align: left;"| =bhìlos / -ā / -om (close) ''n.''


|- class="c18"
bhílos / -ā / -om (loose) ''n.''
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>


| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-mi</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-arian''
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ārius / -a / -um''
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-āsjós / -â / -ás / -óm ''n.''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ics''
| style="text-align: left;"| Gr. ''-ικά''


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédmi </span><span class="c24 c20">I eat</span>
Gr. ''-ική''


|- class="c18"
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-ikā, (∅)-kâ ''n.n''
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-si</span>
(é)-ikā, (∅)-kâ ''n.f''


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédsi </span><span class="c24 c20">you eat</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-istics''
| style="text-align: left;"| → Ger. ''-istik''
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idtikā ''n.n / n.f''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ization''
| style="text-align: left;"| Sp. ''-ización''
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idātīō ''n.f''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ālis / -āle''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-al''
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-ālis ~ (∅)-āléjs ''adj.m/f''<ref>Declines as '''-is''' nouns do</ref>


|- class="c18"
( ́)-āli ~ (∅)-āléjs ''adj.n''
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>


| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ti</span>
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-āticus / -a / -um''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-atic''
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-ātikós / -â / -óm ''adj.''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ātiō''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ation''
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-ātīō ''n.f''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ātus / -a / -um''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ate''
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-ātós ''adj.''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-idus / -a / -um''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-id''
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idhos / -ā / -om ''adj.''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-īlis / -īle''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ile''
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-ilis ~ (∅)-iléjs ''adj.m/f''


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédti </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it eats</span>
( ́)-ili ~ (∅)-iléjs ''adj.n''


|- class="c18"
|-
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-osus'' via A.Gr ''-ώδης''
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ose, -ous''
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)=Hòdēs ~ =Hòdesos (close)


| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-mós</span>
Hódēs ~ Hódesos (loose)


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hdmós</span><span class="c20 c27"> </span><span class="c24 c20">we eat</span>
|}


|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>


| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-té</span>
= A Verb template =


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hdté </span><span class="c24 c20">you (pl.) eat</span>
'''single transitivity:'''


|- class="c18"
<u>nonpast thematic</u>: (é)-e-ti ~ (é)-o-nti <u>nonpast athematic</u>: (é)-ti ~ (∅)-énti
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>


| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-énti</span>
<u>né-nonpast</u>: (∅)-⟨né⟩-ti ~ (∅)-⟨n⟩-énti


| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hdénti </span><span class="c24 c20">they eat</span>
<u>imperfect thematic</u>: (é)-e-t ~ (é)-o-nt <u>imperfect athematic</u>: (é)-t ~ (∅)-ént


|}
<u>né-imperfect</u> (∅)-⟨né⟩-t ~ (∅)-⟨n⟩-énti


<span class="c12"></span>
<u>NP-T subjunctive:</u> (é)-ē-ti ~ (é)-ō-nti <u>NP-A subjunctive</u>: (é)-e-ti ~ (e)-o-nti


<span>Since they can be used as a future tense too, a nonpast form </span><span class="c27">bhérō</span><span> can mean both &quot;I bear&quot; and &quot;I will bear&quot;, though for clarity the latter can be expressed with the periphrastic future tense, described later.</span>
<blockquote><u>past subjunctive regardless of thematicity</u>: (ê)-seti ~ (ê)-sonti
</blockquote>
'''transitive:'''


<u>nonpast</u>: (é)-j-e-ti ~ (é)-j-o-nti bhrégjeti ~ bhrégjonti


-----
<blockquote>Hésmi bhr̥gjómHnos
</blockquote>
<u>imperfect</u>: (é)-j-e-t ~ (é)-j-o-nt bhrégjet ~ bhrégjont


<span id="h.r64r7fhv60sx"></span>
<blockquote>Hésm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos
=== <span class="c63">5.2.2                        Imperfect</span> ===
</blockquote>
'''intransitive:'''


<span class="c12">The imperfect is indicated by the usage of secondary endings in place of primary ones. It signals a past continuous tense.</span>
<u>nonpast</u>: (∅)-j-é-ti ~ (∅)-j-ó-nti bhr̥gjéti ~ bhr̥gjónti


<span class="c12"></span>
Hésmi bhr̥gjómHnos


{| class="wikitable c11"
<u>imperfect</u>: (∅)-j-é-t ~ (∅)-j-ó-nt bhr̥gjét ~ bhr̥gjónt
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Thematic imperfect verb</span>


| class="c66"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
Hésm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos


| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
'''shared:'''


|- class="c18"
<u>eventive aorist</u>: (ê)-s-t ~ (é)-s-n̥t bhrêgst ~ bhrégsn̥t
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-om</span>
bhéwHsm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">bhérom </span><span class="c24 c20">I was bearing</span>
<u>stative aorist</u>: (ó)-e ~ (∅)-êr Hwóse ~ Husêr


|- class="c18"
bhówHe HusómHnos
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-es</span>
<u>stative subjunctive</u>: (é)-e-ti ~ (é)-o-nti Hwéseti ~ Hwésonti


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">bhéres </span><span class="c24 c20">you were bearing</span>
bhéwHeti HusómHnos


|- class="c18"
<u>habitual</u>: (∅)-é-t ~ (∅)-ó-nt bhr̥gét ~ bhr̥gónt
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-et</span>
bhūóm bhr̥gjómHnos


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">bhéret </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it was bearing</span>
<u>habitual subjunctive</u>: (∅)-ê-ti ~ (∅)-ô-nti bhr̥gêti~ bhr̥gônti


|- class="c18"
bhūômi bhr̥gjómHnos
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ome</span>
'''non-finite forms:'''


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">bhérome </span><span class="c24 c20">we were bearing</span>
<u>present participle</u>: (é)-onts ~ (∅)-n̥tés bhrégonts ~ bhr̥gn̥tés


|- class="c18"
<u>passive participle</u>: (∅)-ó-mHnos bhr̥gómHnos
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ete</span>
<u>past participle</u>: (∅)-tós bhr̥gtós


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">bhérete </span><span class="c24 c20">you (pl.) were bearing</span>
<u>infinitive</u>: (é)-es bhréges


|- class="c18"
'''compound tenses:'''
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-onti</span>
<u>perfect</u>: kápti + PastP kápmi bhr̥gtóm


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">bhéronti </span><span class="c24 c20">they were bearing</span>
kápmi bhūtóm bhr̥gjómHnos


|}
<u>pluperfect</u>: kâpst + PastP kâpsm̥ bhr̥gtóm


<span class="c12"></span>
kâpsm̥ bhūtóm bhr̥gjómHnos


<span class="c12"></span>
<u>future tense</u>: Héjti + PresP locative Héjmi bhr̥gént


{| class="wikitable c11"
Héjmi bhūjént bhr̥gjómHnos
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Athematic imperfect verb</span>


| class="c66"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
<u>continuous</u>: Héses + PresP Hésmi/Hésm̥/Hêsm̥ ''etc.'' bhrégontom


| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
<blockquote>Hésmi/Hésm̥/Hêsm̥ bhûjont bhr̥gjómHnos
</blockquote>
Law 1: *''Vwm'' &gt; *''Vːm'' and *''VHm'' &gt; *''Vːm'' (Stang's law)


|- class="c18"
Law 2: ''/-VRs/, */-VRH/ &gt; *-VːR''
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-m̥</span>
''/-VRH-/ &gt; *-VR-'' (Szemerényi's law)


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hédm̥ </span><span class="c24 c20">I was eating</span>


|- class="c18"
= B Sample vocabulary =
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-s</span>
The following sections give short lists of vocabulary separated by parts of speech.


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Héds </span><span class="c24 c20">you were eating</span>


|- class="c18"
== B.1 Verbs ==
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-t</span>
<u>verb infinitive 3sg nonpast 3sg imp. 3sg aorist</u>


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hédt </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it was eating</span>
'''be able''' gélHes gl̥Hnéwti gl̥Hnéwt gélHt


|- class="c18"
'''bake''' bhôges bhôgeti bhôget bhôHgst
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-mé</span>
'''be''' Héses Hésti Hést bhéwst


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdmé </span><span class="c24 c20">we were eating</span>
'''begin''' kénes kéneti kénet kênst


|- class="c18"
'''breathe out''' dhwéses dhwésti dhwést dhwêst
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-té</span>
'''burn''' Héwses Héwseti Héwset Hêwst


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdté </span><span class="c24 c20">you (pl.) were eating</span>
'''change (intr.)''' miés méjor méjto mêjsto


|- class="c18"
'''change (tr.)''' mójnēs mojnéjeti mojnéjet mêjnst
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-énti</span>
'''come''' cémes cm̥jéti cm̥jét cémt


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdénti </span><span class="c24 c20">they were eating</span>
'''cook''' péqes péqeti péqet pêqst


|}
'''defecate''' ḱéqes ḱéqti ḱéqt ḱêqst


<span class="c12"></span>
'''do''' dhês dhêti dhêt dhêHst


<span>The main difference of the imperfect conjugated form from the past continuous periphrastic form is the usage in formulaic constructions, shown later.</span>
'''drink''' píbes píbeti píbet pôHst


'''be dressed''' wésjes usjéti usjét wêst


-----
'''eat''' Hédes Hédti Hédt Hêdst


<span id="h.z1p6x7b89sr9"></span>
'''exchange''' méjtHes méjtHeti méjtHet mêjtHst
=== <span class="c63">5.2.3                        Aorist</span> ===


<span>The aorist forms a simple past. It also uses the secondary endings, but can be one of two further formations. The </span><span class="c27">derived aorist</span><span> is given for </span><span class="c27">root present</span><span class="c12"> verbs, that is, ones which are not formed with secondary derivation such as the nasal infix. This forms as below.</span>
'''go''' Héjes Héjti Héjt Hêjst


<span class="c12"></span>
'''grow''' Háles Háleti Hálet Hêlst


{| class="wikitable c11"
'''have''' kápes kápti kápt kâpst
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Aorist verb</span>


| class="c58"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
'''hear''' HáwdhHes HáwdhHeti HáwdhHet HêwdhHst


| class="c30"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
'''be hungry'''


|- class="c18"
'''know''' wéjdes wéjdeti wéjdet wêjdst
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>


| class="c58 c50"| <span class="c12">(ê)-sm̥</span>
'''like''' bhréwgjes bhrûgjeti bhrûgjet bhréwgst


| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrsm̥ </span><span class="c20">I bore</span>
'''make''' dhêkes dhHkjéti dhHkjét dhêkst


<span class="c27">Hêdsm̥ </span><span class="c24 c20">I ate</span>
wérǵes wérǵeti wérǵet wêrǵst


|- class="c18"
'''recognize'''<ref>also &quot;to know how to do something&quot;</ref> ǵnôs ǵn̥nôti ǵn̥nôt ǵnôt
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c58 c50"| <span class="c12">(ê)-s</span>
'''run''' kérses kr̥séti kr̥sét kêrst (← ''*kḗrs-s-t'')


| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrs </span><span class="c20">you bore</span>
'''say''' séqes séqeti séqet sêqst


<span class="c27">Hêds </span><span class="c24 c20">you ate</span>
'''see''' wéles wéleti wélet wêlst


|- class="c18"
'''share''' dhajlés dhájletor dhájleto dhâjlsto
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>


| class="c58 c50"| <span class="c12">(ê)-st</span>
'''shout''' gâres gâreti gâret gêHrst


| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrst </span><span class="c20">he/she/it bore</span>
'''show''' déjḱes déjḱti déjḱt dêjḱst


<span class="c27">Hêdst </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it ate</span>
'''sing''' kânes kHnéti kHnét kânst


|- class="c18"
'''speak''' wéqes wéqti wéqt wêqst
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>


| class="c58 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-sme</span>
'''stay''' ménes méneti ménet mênst


| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhérsme </span><span class="c20">we bore</span>
'''take''' némes németi német nêmst


<span class="c27">Hédsme </span><span class="c24 c20">we ate</span>
'''talk''' tl̥qés tlóqetor tlóqeto têlqsto


|- class="c18"
'''taste''' ǵéwses ǵéwseti ǵéwset ǵêwst (''← *ǵēws-s-t'')
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>


| class="c58 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ste</span>
'''think''' ténges tn̥gjéti tn̥gjét têngst


| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhérste </span><span class="c20">you (pl.) bore</span>
'''try''' sknés skénetor skéneto skênsto


<span class="c27">Hédste </span><span class="c20">you (pl.) ate</span>
'''turn''' wértes wértti wért wêrtst


|- class="c18"
'''use''' bhrūgjés bhrūgjétor bhrūgjéto bhréwgsto
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>


| class="c58 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-sn̥t</span>
'''utter''' jékes jékti jékt jêkst


| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhérsn̥t </span><span class="c20">they bore</span>
'''walk''' câs cHjéti cHjét câst


<span class="c27">Hédsn̥t </span><span class="c24 c20">they ate</span>
'''want''' wélHes wélHeti wélHet wêlHst


|}
'''wash (oneself)''' léwHjes lūjéti lūjét lêwHst


<span class="c12"></span>
'''watch''' spéḱes spéḱti spéḱt spêḱst


<span>The second formation is the </span><span class="c27">root aorist</span><span>, given for </span><span class="c27">derived verbs</span><span> that do not fit into the above category. It uses the secondary endings attached to a root with no intervening secondary derivations, and can be either thematic or athematic. As such, it is completely identical with the imperfect tense of root present verbs. It differs from the imperfect of derived verbs by dropping secondary derivation. For example, for </span><span class="c27">léjqes</span><span> &quot;to leave&quot; has the (derived) present </span><span class="c27">linéqti</span><span>, (derived) imperfect </span><span class="c27">linéqt</span><span>, and root aorist </span><span class="c27">léjqt</span><span class="c12">.</span>
'''wear''' usés wés(t)or wésto wêsto (← ''wḗs-s-to'')


'''write''' gérbhes gr̥bhéti gr̥bhét gêrbhst


-----
'''be working''' wérǵjes wr̥ǵjéti wr̥ǵjét ⸻


<span class="c12"></span>


<span id="h.75osiclkn7r1"></span>
== B.2 Nouns ==
=== <span class="c63">5.2.4                        Habitual</span> ===


<span class="c12">The habitual has no explicit tense – the position in time of the relevant action depends solely on the context of the sentence. The form of this is a thematic verb with secondary endings.</span>
<u>noun nom. sg. gen. sg. nom. pl. gen. pl.</u>


<span class="c12"></span>
'''baker ''m.''''' bhōgós bhōgósjo bhōgôs bhōgôm


{| class="wikitable c11"
'''book ''m.''''' gérbhs gr̥bhés gérbhes gr̥bhôm
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Dynamic habitual verb</span>


| class="c66"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
'''''m.''''' lubhrós lubhrósjo lubhrôs lubhrôm


| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
'''bread ''m.''''' bhôgos bhôgosjo bhôgōs bhôgōm


|- class="c18"
<blockquote>dhonâ dhonâs dhonâs dhonâōm
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>
</blockquote>
'''brother ''m.''''' bhrâtēr bhrâtr̥s bhrâteres bhrâtrōm


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-óm</span>
'''''m.''''' 〃 bhr̥Htrés 〃 bhr̥Htrôm


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdóm </span><span class="c24 c20">I used to eat</span>
'''coin ''f.''''' mónētā mónētās mónētās mónētāōm


|- class="c18"
'''''m.''''' nómos nómosjo nómōs nómōm
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-és</span>
'''earth ''f.''''' dhéǵhōm (dh)ǵhmés ⸻ ⸻


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdés </span><span class="c24 c20">you used to eat</span>
'''father ''m.''''' pHtêr pHtrés pHtéres pHtrôm


|- class="c18"
'''fish ''m.''''' péjsks piskés péjskes piskôm
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-ét</span>
'''friend ''m.''''' dhrowghós dhrowghósjo dhrowghôs dhrowghôm


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdét </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it used to eat</span>
'''friend, close ''m.''''' bhílos bhílosjo bhílôs bhílōm


|- class="c18"
'''grain ''n.''''' ǵr̥Hnóm ǵr̥Hnósjo ǵr̥Hnâ ǵr̥nôm
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-óme</span>
'''house ''f.''''' dôm déms dómes démōm


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdóme </span><span class="c24 c20">we used to eat</span>
'''money ''m.''''' pḱunós pḱunósjo pḱunôs pḱunôm


|- class="c18"
'''mother ''f.''''' mâtēr mâtr̥s mâteres mâtrōm
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-éte</span>
'''''f.''''' 〃 m̥Htrés 〃 m̥Htrôm


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdéte </span><span class="c24 c20">you used to eat</span>
'''nose ''f.''''' nâs n̥Hsés nâses n̥Hsôm


|- class="c18"
'''person ''m.''''' ǵhmô ǵhm̥nés ǵhmónes ǵhm̥nôm
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>


| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-ónt</span>
'''salt ''f.''''' sâls sHlés ''sâles sHlôm''


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdónt </span><span class="c24 c20">they used to eat</span>
'''sister ''f.''''' swésōr susrés swésores susrôm


|}
'''story (account) ''n.''''' wéjdtōrmn̥ widtōrméns wéjdtōrmō widtōrm̥nés


<span id="h.uvdmahdn9u5"></span>
'''story (tale) ''n.''''' câdhlom câdhlosjo câdhlā câdhlōm
=== <span class="c63">5.2.5                        Stative-type present</span> ===


<span>For very few verbs the present is formed using the Proto-Indo-European stative formation. These have no imperfect or aorist, and have special past participle forms built on </span><span class="c27">-wōs ~ -usī ~ -wos</span><span class="c12">.</span>


<span class="c12"></span>
== B.3 Adjectives ==


{| class="wikitable c11"
<u>adjective nom. sg. gen. sg. nom. pl. gen. pl.</u>
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Stative habitual verb</span>


| class="c66"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
'''dark''' dhuskós dhuskósjo dhuskôs dhuskôm


| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
'''red''' Hrowdhós Hrowdhósjo Hrowdhôs Hrowdhôm


|- class="c18"
Hrudhrós Hrudhrósjo Hrudhrôs Hrudhrôm
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(ó)-Ha</span>
'''tall (of people)''' stHrós stHrósjo stHrôs stHrôm


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">móghHa </span><span class="c24 c20">I can</span>
'''thin''' mHḱrós mHḱrósjo mHḱrôs mHḱrôm


|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>


| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(ó)-tHa</span>
= C Common phrases =


| class="c64"| <span class="c27">móghtHa </span><span class="c24 c20">you can</span>


|- class="c18"
= D Full alphabet and alternative scripts =
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(ó)-e</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">móghe </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it knows</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-mé</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">m̥ghmé </span><span class="c24 c20">we can</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-é</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">m̥ghé </span><span class="c24 c20">you (pl.) know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-êr</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">m̥ghêr </span><span class="c20">they know</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.pu2u0ouicoqo"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.2.6                        Deponent</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">A very small number of verbs is a deponent: one which looks like an old mediopassive form, but acts as though it were active. This is not counted as a passive form. Deponent verbs have special forms in all tenses.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">Deponent verbs</span>
 
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">Nonpast</span>
 
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">Imperfect</span>
 
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">Aorist</span>
 
| class="c113"| <span class="c32">Habitual</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c75 c131">athematic</span><span class="c32">(∅)-Hár</span>
 
<span class="c75 c131">thematic</span><span class="c32">(é)-ōr</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-Há</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-ōa</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-sHa</span>
 
| class="c113 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ôr</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-tHár</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-etHar</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-tHá</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-etHa</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-stHa</span>
 
| class="c113 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-étHar</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-(t)ór</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-etor</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-(t)ó</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-eto</span>
 
| class="c52 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-s(t)o</span>
 
| class="c50 c113"| <span class="c32">(∅)-étor</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-mósdhH</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-omosdhH</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-médhH</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-omedhH</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(é)-smedhH</span>
 
| class="c113 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ómosdhH</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-dhHwé</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-edhHwe</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-dhHwé</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-edhHwe</span>
 
| class="c46 c52"| <span class="c32">(é)-sdhHwe</span>
 
| class="c113 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-édhHwe</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c52"| <span class="c32">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-rór ~ (∅)-ntór</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-oror ~ (é)-ontor</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ró ~ (∅)-ntó</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-oro ~ (é)-ento</span>
 
| class="c52 c46"| <span class="c32">(é)-sro ~ -sn̥to</span>
 
| class="c113 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-óror ~ (∅)-óntor</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.d4d77kpsokpq"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.2.7                        Imperative</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">The imperative is its own mood, and conjugates only in the second and third person. It is tenseless, so there is only one set of imperative forms for each verb. Their forms differ only slightly based on thematicity.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Thematic imperative</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-e</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhére </span><span class="c24 c20">bear!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-etu</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhéretu </span><span class="c24 c20">let him/her/it bear!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ete</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérete </span><span class="c24 c20">bear (pl.)!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ontu</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérontu </span><span class="c24 c20">let them bear!</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Athematic imperative</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-∅</span>
 
<span class="c12">(∅)-dhí</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Héd</span>
 
<span class="c27">Hddhí </span><span class="c24 c20">eat!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-tu</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédtu </span><span class="c24 c20">let him/her/it eat!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-té</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hdté </span><span class="c24 c20">eat (pl.)!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-éntu</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hdéntu </span><span class="c24 c20">let them eat!</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Stative-type imperative</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(e)-(ó)-∅</span>
 
<span class="c12">(e)-(∅)-dhí</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">memón </span><span class="c24 c20">remember!</span>
 
<span class="c27">memn̥dhí</span><span> </span><span class="c24 c20">remember!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(e)-(ó)-tu</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">memóntu </span><span class="c24 c20">let him/her/it remember!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(e)-(∅)-té</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">memn̥té </span><span class="c24 c20">remember (pl.)!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(e)-(∅)-éntu</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">memnéntu </span><span class="c24 c20">let them remember!</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Deponent imperative</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-o</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">wéso!</span><span class="c24 c20"> wear (it)!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-(e)to</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">wésto!</span><span class="c24 c20"> let him/her/it wear!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-(e)dh(H)we</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">wésdh(H)we!</span><span class="c24 c20"> wear (pl.) (it)!</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-(o)nto</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">wésn̥to!</span><span class="c24 c20"> let them wear!</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.myl62re64mvb"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.2.8                        Special formation types</span> ===
 
<span>Some verb forms include affixes which attach to a verb root to form a stem, onto which certain endings are added. In this document, </span><span class="c20">primary</span><span> indicates verbs whose suffixes do not add significant special meaning, which form a root present and sigmatic aorist (including on suffixes </span><span class="c27">-ê-</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">-ā-</span><span>, etc.); </span><span class="c20">secondary</span><span> indicates verbs which use special derivational suffixes for the present and form a root aorist; </span><span class="c20">tertiary</span><span class="c12"> indicates verbs which use meaningful derivational suffixes but do not form an aorist because the meaning of the derived verb contrasts the meaning of its non-derived counterpart.</span>
 
<span id="h.um5av4xhkeel"></span>
==== <span>5.2.8.1                Nasal infix (secondary)</span> ====
 
<span>There is a special form of nonpast and imperfect formed with the </span><span class="c20">nasal infix</span><span> </span><span class="c27">-né-  ~ -n- </span><span>on the zero-grade stem. This infix ablauts from the singular to the plural in the indicative, remains </span><span class="c27">-né-</span><span class="c12"> in the subjunctive, and is conjugated with athematic endings. The infix is only seen in these two tenses.</span>
 
<span id="h.bkat3lmzczor"></span>
==== <span>5.2.8.2                sḱ-inchoative verbs (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>The infix </span><span class="c27">-sḱ-</span><span class="c12"> attaches to some verb roots to form verbs which occasionally, but not always, have an inchoative meaning. These verbs are thematic.</span>
 
<span id="h.i7ygu4657fm5"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.3                -j- infix transitive-intransitive pairs (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>Some verbs can be formed with </span><span class="c27">(é)-jeti</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">(∅)-jéti</span><span class="c12">. The former will always form transitive verbs, and the latter intransitive verbs. The intransitive in particular implies an ongoing action, and as such has no aorist tense. Verb roots can be combined with each of these to produce a pair of transitive and intransitive verbs, but this need not be the case. In case it does, conjugated verb forms differ in all forms except the aorist, where both forms are identical.</span>
 
<span id="h.89s9tsaiggcu"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.4                -néw- infix verbs (tertiary)</span> ====
 
<span>As with the nasal infix, some verbs will form their present, imperfect, and habitual tenses with </span><span class="c27">-néw-</span><span>. This is placed after a zero-grade verb root, and is athematic in the present and imperfect. It ablauts to </span><span class="c27">-nu-</span><span class="c12"> when unstressed, including in all persons of the habitual.</span>
 
<span id="h.m0t34zf5q8fu"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.5                Causative formations (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>The verb form </span><span class="c27">(o)-éjeti ~ (o)-éjonti</span><span> forms causative verbs, such as </span><span class="c27">Hédmi</span><span> &quot;to eat&quot; becoming </span><span class="c27">Hodéjeti</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to feed&quot;. This forms verbs meaning &quot;to cause to do X&quot;. This makes explicitly transitive verbs, often from existing verb roots or from adjective roots.</span>
 
<span id="h.suqvuumr2lq2"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.6                Desiderative formations (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>The affix </span><span class="c27">-sj-</span><span> is added to very few verb roots to form desiderative &quot;want to X&quot; verbs. It is thematic, attaches to the zero-grade root, and is accented on the thematic vowel, as </span><span class="c27">Hdsjéti</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to want to eat, to be hungry&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.2lqh6h4vnwx7"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.7                Adjectival stative formations (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>The suffix </span><span class="c27">(∅)-êti ~ (∅)-ên̥ti </span><span>(athematic) or </span><span class="c27">(∅)-êjeti ~ (∅)-êjonti </span><span>(thematic) form stative &quot;to be X&quot; verbs specifically from adjective roots, such as </span><span class="c27">Hrudhêti</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to be red&quot;. These verbs can expand slightly in meaning from a stative &quot;to be X&quot; to a dynamic &quot;to go X, to become X&quot;. In either case they are explicitly intransitive verbs, and must be made causative to become transitive.</span>
 
<span id="h.jzy871rvufbk"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.8                Reduplicated thematic verbs (secondary)</span> ====
 
<span>Very few verbs will form their nonpast and imperfect with </span><span class="c27">(í)-(∅)-eti ~ (í)-(∅)-onti</span><span>; they have a reduplicated element with </span><span class="c27">-i-</span><span> as the vowel which retains the stress, such as </span><span class="c27">sísdeti</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to sit&quot;. These have no special meaning, and are simply formations of the tense.</span>
 
<span id="h.oybhx2okd1dc"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.9                Reduplicated athematic verbs (secondary)</span> ====
 
<span>Similarlty to the above, some verbs will form with </span><span class="c27">(í/é)-(e)-ti ~ (í/é)-(∅)-nti</span><span>, such as </span><span class="c27">stístāti</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to stand up&quot;. These verbs also have no particular nuance, and are formed arbitrarily.</span>
 
<span id="h.ccif5ac98t1o"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.10                Zero-grade thematic formation (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>The so-called </span><span class="c20">tudati</span><span> type verb forms all tenses from </span><span class="c27">(∅)-éti ~ (∅)-ónti</span><span class="c12">, in which case its habitual and imperfect are identical.</span>
 
<span id="h.8sw5r8rp1ari"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.11                Factitive (deadjectival) verbs (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>The factitive verb form </span><span class="c27">(é)-āti ~ (é)-ān̥ti </span><span>creates verbs that imply &quot;to make X&quot;, such as </span><span class="c27">néwāti</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to renew, to make new&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.312nhbuit8kg"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.12                Denominative verbs (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>Despite their similarity with the -j- infix verbs described in </span><span class="c27">5.2.7.3</span><span>, the verb forms </span><span class="c27">(∅)-ejéti ~ (∅)-ejónti</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">(∅)-ājéti ~ (∅)-ājónti</span><span> are denominative (and occasionally deadjectival) suffixes; they are derived from (mainly) noun stems to indicate a performance of that noun.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.wuyly229ffu1"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.13                Iterative/frequentative/intensive formation (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>These verbs are marked by the thematic suffix </span><span class="c27">-ājéti ~ -ājónti</span><span class="c12">, and may appear as o-grade among others. This suffix forms verbs with iterative (repetition of an action, but only during one distinct occasion), frequentative (occasional repetition of an action on several undefined occasions), or intensive meaning.</span>
 
<span id="h.8v2pdbbu2lv4"></span>
==== <span class="c77">5.2.8.14                -dhHéti resultative formation (primary)</span> ====
 
<span>The resultative formation </span><span class="c27">(é)-dhHeti ~ (é)-dhHonti</span><span> generally expresses “to become X”. As a result it is most commonly formed from adjective roots.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.1skg7z2g5p71"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">5.3                        Periphrastic forms</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">These verb forms are a combination of a conjugated form and a non-finite form: a conjugated verb and a participle.</span>
 
<span id="h.emd0848emo5g"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.3.1                        Explicit future tense</span> ===
 
<span>Although the nonpast tense can be used as an implicit future, a periphrastic future can be expressed with the verb </span><span class="c27">Héjes</span><span> &quot;to go&quot;, with the supine form, such as </span><span class="c27">éǵ</span><span> </span><span class="c27">Héjmi Hdént</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I am going to eat, I will eat&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.16yqtc5bnkfp"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.3.2                        Perfect tense</span> ===
 
<span>The perfect tense is handled by the verb </span><span class="c27">kápes</span><span>, which is only used to form this particular tense. It carries the meaning of &quot;have X-ed&quot;. The nonpast tense is used with the past participle, such as </span><span class="c27">éǵ kápmi Hdtóm</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I have eaten&quot;.</span>
 
<span>If there is no direct object, the neuter form </span><span class="c27">-tóm</span><span> of the participle should be used. However, if there is a direct object, the past participle should match the gender of the object, such as </span><span class="c27">íd kápti Hdtâ îm̥</span><span class="c12"> &quot;it has eaten her&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.qkscmp6302mt"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.3.3                        Pluperfect tense</span> ===
 
<span>The pluperfect &quot;had X-ed&quot; can be formed by changing the conjugated from of </span><span class="c27">kápes</span><span> from the nonpast to the aorist, such as </span><span class="c27">éǵ kâpsm̥ Hdtóm </span><span class="c12">&quot;I had eaten&quot;. The participle must also agree as in the perfect tense.</span>
 
<span id="h.o9s1hwtrihql"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.3.4                        Future perfect tense</span> ===
 
<span>Instead of using </span><span class="c27">kápes</span><span>, the future formation of </span><span class="c27">Héjes</span><span> must be used with the supine form </span><span class="c27">kapént</span><span> and a past participle, such as </span><span class="c27">éǵ Héjmi kapént Hdtóm</span><span> &quot;I will have eaten&quot;. Once again, that the participle must agree with the object's gender is retained.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.5aby9jrolo1s"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.3.5                        Continuous tenses</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">A continuous tense indicates an explicitly imperfective tense, showing that an action is underway and incomplete.</span>
 
<span>Continuous tenses can be formed with the nonpast and imperfect conjugations of </span><span class="c27">Héses</span><span> along with a present participle, such as </span><span class="c27">Hésmi Hdónts</span><span> &quot;I am eating&quot;, or </span><span class="c27">Hésm̥ Hdónts</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I was eating&quot;.</span>
 
<span>In addition, the future tense can form a continuous: </span><span class="c27">Héjmi Hsént Hdónts</span><span> &quot;I will be eating&quot;, and </span><span class="c27">Héjmi kapént Hstóm Hdónts</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I will have been eating&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.gmtza4ag3i8c"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.3.6                        Imperfective anterior</span> ===
 
<span>This construction translates as &quot;was going to X&quot;. It can either take the imperfect or the aorist form of </span><span class="c27">Héses</span><span>, with the present participle of </span><span class="c27">Héjes</span><span> and the supine. The aorist form is usually used as a simple description of events: </span><span class="c27">bhéwHsm̥ Hjónts Hdént</span><span> &quot;I was going to eat&quot;. The imperfect form, on the contrary, is usually used to introduce the context before another action, with the second action being placed in the aorist: </span><span class="c27">Hésm̥ Hjónts Hdént, </span><span class="c27">qomóḱs </span><sup>[[#cmnt9|[i]]]</sup><span class="c27">ís cémt</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I was going to eat when he came&quot;.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.dmxosdxp95p"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.3.7                        Passive forms</span> ===
 
<span>SAvIE makes no distinction between the middle and the passive, preferring only to use a passive. This is formed with any conjugated form of </span><span class="c27">Héses</span><span> with the passive participle, such as </span><span class="c27">bhéwHsm̥ Hdm̥Hnós</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I was eaten&quot;.</span>
 
<span>Periphrastic tenses can also be made passive: </span><span class="c27">Hésm̥ Hjónts Hsént Hdm̥Hnós, qomóḱs ís cémt </span><span>&quot;I was going to be eaten when he came&quot;.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.cp52ocrs55fn"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">5.4                        Subjunctive</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">The subjunctive is a conjugated verb form used either to express uncertainty semantically, or to express a relative clause.</span>
 
<span id="h.ky6azw4im3wh"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.4.1                        Nonpast subjunctive</span> ===
 
<span>The subjunctive of root thematic nonpast verbs simply lengthens the theme vowel, with </span><span class="c27">-ō</span><span> gaining </span><span class="c27">-H</span><span>; given the proto-form is </span><span class="c20">*-ōh₂</span><span>, no change is expected, but </span><span class="c27">-H</span><span> is added to distinguish the subjunctive form from the indicative.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Thematic nonpast verb</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ō</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérōH </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">I bear</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ēsi</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérēsi </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">you bear</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ēti</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérēti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20 c24">he/she/it bear</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ōmos</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérōmos </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">we bear</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ēte</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérēte </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">you (pl.) bear</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ōnti</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">bhérōnti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">they bear</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12">The athematic nonpast verbs, meanwhile, are converted to thematic verbs with acrostatic stress.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Athematic nonpast verb</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ō</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédō</span><span class="c20 c27"> </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) I eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-esi</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédesi </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) you eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c34 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-eti</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédeti </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) he/she/it eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-omos</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédomos </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) we eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ete</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédete </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) you (pl.) eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c34 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-onti</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c27">Hédonti </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) they eat</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.ryo2ri4vyo6y"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.4.2                        Imperfect subjunctive</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">There is no imperfect subjunctive in SAvIE; the habitual subjunctive should be used instead.</span>
 
<span id="h.luy7nmadf2ch"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.4.3                        Aorist subjunctive</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">Since the aorist uses athematic secondary endings, the subjunctive changes these to thematic primary endings, and keeps a lengthened e-grade root with acrostatic stress.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Aorist verb</span>
 
| class="c58"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c30"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c58 c50"| <span class="c12">(ê)-sō</span>
 
| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrsō </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20">I bore</span>
 
<span class="c27">Hêdsō </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">I ate</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c58 c50"| <span class="c12">(ê)-sesi</span>
 
| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrsesi </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20">you bore</span>
 
<span class="c27">Hêdsesi </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">you ate</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c58 c50"| <span class="c12">(ê)-seti</span>
 
| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrseti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20">he/she/it bore</span>
 
<span class="c27">Hêdseti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it ate</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c58 c46"| <span class="c12">(ê)-somos</span>
 
| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrsomos </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c27"> </span><span class="c20">we bore</span>
 
<span class="c27">Hêdsomos </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c27"> </span><span class="c24 c20">we ate</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c46 c58"| <span class="c12">(ê)-sete</span>
 
| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrsete </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20">you (pl.) bore</span>
 
<span class="c27">Hêdsete </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20">you (pl.) ate</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c58 c46"| <span class="c12">(ê)-sonti</span>
 
| class="c30"| <span class="c27">bhêrsonti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20">they bore</span>
 
<span class="c27">Hêdsonti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">they ate</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.4ek3pgmvhosr"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.4.4                        Habitual subjunctive</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">In the habitual subjunctive of dynamic verbs, the theme vowel is lengthened and used with primary endings, against a zero-grade root, with accent always falling on the endings as in the indicative.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Dynamic habitual verb</span>
 
| class="c66"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-ôH</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">HdôH </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">I used to eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-êsi</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdêsi </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">you used to eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(∅)-êti</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdêti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it used to eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-ômos</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdômos </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">we used to eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-ête</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdête </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">you used to eat</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(∅)-ônti</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">Hdônti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">they used to eat</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12">The habitual subjunctive of stative verbs, by contrast, takes an e-grade root with acrostatic stress, and thematic primary endings, identical to root thematic verbs.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Stative habitual verb</span>
 
| class="c66"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ō</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdō </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">I used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-esi</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdesi </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">you used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-eti</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdeti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">he/she/it used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-omos</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdomos </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">we used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ete</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdete </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c24 c20">you (pl.) used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-onti</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdonti </span><span class="c20">(that) </span><span class="c20">they used to know</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.1sq0jadhy0dn"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.4.5                        Stative-type subjunctives</span> ===
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Stative habitual verb</span>
 
| class="c66"| <span class="c12">Model</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">Example</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-ō</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdō </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) I used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-esi</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdesi </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) you used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c66 c50"| <span class="c12">(é)-eti</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdeti </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) he/she/it used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-omos</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdomos </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) we used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-ete</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdete </span><span class="c24 c20">(that) you (pl.) used to know</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c64"| <span class="c12">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c66 c46"| <span class="c12">(é)-onti</span>
 
| class="c64"| <span class="c27">wéjdonti </span><span class="c20">(that) they used to know</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.oha356c3vhu8"></span>
=== <span class="c63">5.4.6                        Deponent subjunctives</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">As is the case with active verbs, there is no form for the imperfect, and the habitual must be used to cover both tenses.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c134"| <span class="c32">Deponent subjunctive</span>
 
| class="c124"| <span class="c32">Nonpast</span>
 
| class="c124"| <span class="c32">Aorist</span>
 
| class="c124"| <span class="c32">Habitual</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c134"| <span class="c32">1st person singular</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c75 c131">athematic</span><span class="c32">(é)-ōr</span>
 
<span class="c75 c131">thematic</span><span class="c75">(é)-ōHar</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c32">(ê)-sōr</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ôHar</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c134"| <span class="c32">2nd person singular</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-etHar</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-ētHar</span>
 
| class="c50 c124"| <span class="c32">(ê)-setHar</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-êtHar</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c134"| <span class="c32">3rd person singular</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-etor</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-ētor</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c32">(ê)-setor</span>
 
| class="c124 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-êtor</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c134"| <span class="c32">1st person plural</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(é)-omosdhH</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-ōmosdhH</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(ê)-somosdhH</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ômosdhH</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c134"| <span class="c32">2nd person plural</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(é)-edhHwe</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-ēdhHwe</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(ê)-sedhHwe</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-êdhHwe</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c134"| <span class="c32">3rd person plural</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(é)-oror ~ (é)-ontor</span>
 
<span class="c32">(é)-ōror ~ (é)-ōntor</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(ê)-sontor ~ (ê)-soror</span>
 
| class="c124 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ôror ~ (∅)-ôntor</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.1997y2fs6i3p"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">5.5                        The irregular verb Héses</span> ==
 
<span class="c27">Héses</span><span> &quot;to be&quot; is an irregular verb; it is suppletive in the aorist indicative and aorist and habitual subjunctive tense, where it takes from the stem </span><span class="c27">bhū-</span><span>, from </span><span class="c20">*bʰuH-</span><span>. It is important to note that the lengthened grade (seen in the aorist) is </span><span class="c27">bhéwH-</span><span>, filling in an </span><span class="c27">-e-</span><span> by analogy, treating </span><span class="c27">bhū-</span><span> as the zero-grade and </span><span class="c27">bhéwH-</span><span class="c12"> as the full-grade form.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>This is the complete conjugation of </span><span class="c27">Héses</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c18"
| class="c74" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Héses</span>
 
<span class="c12">&quot;to be&quot;</span>
 
| class="c106" colspan="4"| <span class="c12">Indicative</span>
 
| class="c110" colspan="3"| <span class="c12">Subjunctive</span>
 
| class="c74" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">Imp.</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c12">Nonp.</span>
 
| class="c74"| <span class="c12">Impf.</span>
 
| class="c121"| <span class="c12">Aor.</span>
 
| class="c74"| <span class="c12">Hab.</span>
 
| class="c71"| <span class="c12">Nonp.</span>
 
| class="c118"| <span class="c12">Aor.</span>
 
| class="c71"| <span class="c12">Hab.</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">1st sg.</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hésmi</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hésm̥</span>
 
| class="c121 c50"| <span class="c9">bhéwHsm̥</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hsóm</span>
 
| class="c50 c71"| <span class="c9">Hésō</span>
 
| class="c50 c118"| <span class="c9">bhéwHsō</span>
 
| class="c71 c50"| <span class="c9">bhūôH</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c26"> </span><span class="c26 c20 c140">⸻</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">2nd sg.</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hési</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hés</span>
 
| class="c121 c50"| <span class="c9">bhéwHs</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hsés</span>
 
| class="c71 c50"| <span class="c9">Hésesi</span>
 
| class="c118 c50"| <span class="c9">bhéwHesi</span>
 
| class="c71 c50"| <span class="c9">bhūêsi</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hsdhí</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">3rd sg.</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hésti</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hést</span>
 
| class="c121 c50"| <span class="c9">bhéwHst</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Hsét</span>
 
| class="c71 c50"| <span class="c9">Héseti</span>
 
| class="c118 c50"| <span class="c9">bhéwHseti</span>
 
| class="c71 c50"| <span class="c9">bhūêti</span>
 
| class="c74 c50"| <span class="c9">Héstu</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">1st pl.</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hsmós</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hsmé</span>
 
| class="c19"| <span class="c9">bhûsme</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hsóme</span>
 
| class="c71 c46"| <span class="c9">Hésomos</span>
 
| class="c118 c46"| <span class="c9">bhéwHsomos</span>
 
| class="c71 c46"| <span class="c9">bhūômos</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c140 c26 c20">⸻</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">2nd pl.</span>
 
| class="c46 c149" colspan="2"| <span class="c9">Hsté</span>
 
| class="c19"| <span class="c9">bhûste</span>
 
| class="c46 c74"| <span class="c9">Hséte</span>
 
| class="c71 c46"| <span class="c9">Hésete</span>
 
| class="c118 c46"| <span class="c9">bhéwHsete</span>
 
| class="c71 c46"| <span class="c9">bhūête</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hsté</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">3rd pl.</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hsénti</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hsént</span>
 
| class="c19"| <span class="c9">bhûsn̥t</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hsónt</span>
 
| class="c71 c46"| <span class="c9">Hésonti</span>
 
| class="c118 c46"| <span class="c9">bhéwHsonti</span>
 
| class="c71 c46"| <span class="c9">bhūônti</span>
 
| class="c74 c46"| <span class="c9">Hséntu</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">Prs. p.</span>
 
| class="c115 c101" colspan="8"| <span class="c9">Hsónts ~ Hséntī ~ Hsóntas ~ Hsónt</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">Pst. p.</span>
 
| class="c115 c101" colspan="8"| <span class="c9">Hstós ~ Hstâ ~ Hstás ~ Hstóm</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">Pass. p.</span>
 
| class="c101 c115" colspan="8"| <span class="c140 c26 c20">none</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">Purp.</span>
 
| class="c115 c101" colspan="8"| <span class="c9">Hésos</span>
 
|- class="c18"
| class="c74"| <span class="c33">Supine</span>
 
| class="c115 c101" colspan="8"| <span class="c9">Hsént</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.4w6lh9k2d0v9"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">6                        Gender-neutral paradigm</span> =
 
<span class="c12">In SAvIE, there exists a newly-developed gender-neutral form which encompasses a pronoun and large selection of adjectival endings corresponding with each of the adjectives above that has explicitly gendered forms, meaning that common-gender forms are not covered by this paradigm.</span>
 
<span class="c12">The basis of the gender-neutral paradigm is the sound /a/, spelt as ⟨a⟩.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12">Its pronominal form is as follows:</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12">Nominative</span>
 
<span class="c122 c120">Accusative</span>
 
<span class="c22 c120">Genitive</span>
 
<span class="c102 c120">Dative</span>
 
<span class="c119 c142">Locative</span>
 
<span class="c123 c120 c99 c142">Adjective</span>
 
<span class="c15 c16">3rd singular neutral</span>
 
<span class="c12">jás</span>
 
<span class="c12">jám</span>
 
<span class="c12">jás</span>
 
<span class="c12">jâj</span>
 
<span class="c12">jaj</span>
 
<span class="c12">(</span>
 
<span class="c12">swós</span>
 
<span class="c12">/-â</span>
 
<span class="c12">/-ás</span>
 
<span class="c12">/-óm</span>
 
<span class="c12">)</span>
 
<span class="c15 c16">3rd plural neutral</span>
 
<span class="c12">jâs</span>
 
<span class="c12">jáms</span>
 
<span class="c12">jáōm</span>
 
<span class="c12">jámos</span>
 
<span class="c12">jásu</span>
 
<span class="c12">(</span>
 
<span class="c12">swós</span>
 
<span class="c12">/-â</span>
 
<span class="c12">/-ás</span>
 
<span class="c12">/-óm</span>
 
<span class="c12">)</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>Adjectives, consequently, all decline with </span><span class="c27">a</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c78"| <span class="c32"></span>
 
| class="c78"| <span class="c9">-onts → -éntas</span>
 
| class="c78"| <span class="c9">-us → -was</span>
 
| class="c78"| <span class="c9">-wénts → -wéntas</span>
 
| class="c78"| <span class="c9">-os → -oas → -ōs </span>
 
| class="c78"| <span class="c9">-s → -as</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c78"| <span class="c9">Nominative sg.</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éntas</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-was</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wéntas</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c75">-o-as </span><span class="c26">→ </span><span class="c32">-ōs</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(é)-as</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c78"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive sg.</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-n̥tás</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éwas</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wn̥tás</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c75">-o-as-jo </span><span class="c26">→ </span><span class="c32">-ōsjo</span>
 
| class="c78 c50"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ás</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c78"| <span class="c9">Nominative pl.</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éntajes</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c32">(é)-ewajes</span>
 
| class="c46 c78"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wéntajes</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c75">-o-ajes </span><span class="c26">→ </span><span class="c32">-ōjes</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c32">(é)-ajes</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c78"| <span class="c31 c26">Genitive pl.</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-n̥tájōm</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-éwajōm</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-wn̥tájōm</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c75">-o-ajōm </span><span class="c26">→ </span><span class="c32">-ōjōm</span>
 
| class="c78 c46"| <span class="c32">(∅)-ájōm</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>An example of this is </span><span class="c27">éǵ wéjdō qid jás Hésti Hwéswas</span><span> &quot;I know that they (sg.) are good&quot;.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.2rhlublgw4u4"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">7                        Pro-forms</span> =
 
<span>SAvIE pro-forms include pronouns and demonstratives, and question forms known as </span><span class="c20">wh-words</span><span class="c12">. They are outlined in the table below.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c151"
|- class="c14"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32"></span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">interr.</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;what?&quot;</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">proximal</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;this&quot;</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">medial</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;that&quot;</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">distal</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;yon&quot;</span>
 
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">assertive</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;some&quot;</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">elective</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;any&quot;</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">universal</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;every&quot;</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">negative</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;no(ne)&quot;</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">alternative</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">&quot;other&quot;</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">determiner</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qós?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qâ?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qod?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">só</span>
 
<span class="c32">sâ</span>
 
<span class="c32">tod</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">Hénos</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hénā</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hénom</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">Hl̥nós</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hl̥nâ</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hl̥nóm</span>
 
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">Hojwós</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hojwâ</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hojwóm</span>
 
| class="c72" rowspan="3"| <span class="c32">qísqe ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">ojnolós</span>
 
<span class="c32">qîqe ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">ojnolâ</span>
 
<span class="c32">qásqe ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">ojnolás</span>
 
<span class="c32">qídqe ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">ojnolóm</span>
 
| class="c85" rowspan="3"| <span class="c32">sl̥Hwós ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">-ôs</span>
 
<span class="c32">sl̥Hwâ ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">-âs</span>
 
<span class="c32">sl̥Hwás ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">-ájes</span>
 
<span class="c32">sl̥Hwóm ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">-â</span>
 
<span class="c20 c75">or</span>
 
<span class="c32">wikós</span>
 
<span class="c32">/ -â / -ás</span>
 
<span class="c32">/ -óm</span>
 
| class="c94" rowspan="3"| <span class="c32">neqós ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">neojnolós</span>
 
<span class="c32">neqâ ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">neojnolâ</span>
 
<span class="c32">neqás ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">neojnolás</span>
 
<span class="c32">neqód ~</span>
 
<span class="c32">neojnolóm</span>
 
| class="c68" rowspan="3"| <span class="c32">Háljos</span>
 
<span class="c32">Háljā</span>
 
<span class="c32">Háljas</span>
 
<span class="c32">Háljom</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">human</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qís?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qî?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qás?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">ḱís</span>
 
<span class="c32">ḱī</span>
 
<span class="c32">ḱás</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">ḱênos</span>
 
<span class="c32">ḱênā</span>
 
<span class="c32">ḱênas</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">Hl̥nós</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hl̥nâ</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hl̥nás</span>
 
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">Hójwos</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hójwā</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hójwas</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">object</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qíd?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">ḱíd</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">ḱênod</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">Hl̥nóm</span>
 
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">Hójwom</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">dual</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qíteros?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qíterā?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qíteras?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qíterom?</span>
 
<span class="c75"> </span><span class="c70 c20">~ qó-</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c70 c20">ḱíteros</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">etc.</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">⸻ →</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c70 c20">Hl̥nóteros</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">etc.</span>
 
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">⸻ →</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">qíterosqe</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">~ qó-</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">etc.</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">Hm̥bhô</span>
 
<span class="c32">Hm̥bhâH</span>
 
<span class="c75">Hm̥bhój</span><sup>[[#ftnt2|[2]]]</sup>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">neqíteros</span>
 
<span class="c20 c70">~ qó-</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">etc.</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">Háljoteros</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">etc.</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">location</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">kúr?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qór?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">ḱér</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">Hénâḱe</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">ísḱe</span>
 
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">Hojwâḱe</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">kúrqe</span>
 
<span class="c32">qórqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">wikómḱe</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">nekúr</span>
 
<span class="c32">neqór</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">Háljāḱe</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">source</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qôdhe?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">tosjāsdhe</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">Hénosjāsdhe</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">Hl̥nâsdhe</span>
 
| class="c76" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">qôdheqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">wikâsdhe</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">neqôdhe</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">Háljāsdhe</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">goal</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qómde?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">tâmde</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">Hénāmde</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">Hl̥nâmde</span>
 
| class="c76" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">qómdeqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">wikómde</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">neqómde</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">Háljāmdhe</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">time</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qódō?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">nú</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">tóqe</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">← ⸻</span>
 
| class="c76" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">qódōqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">wídō</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">neqódō</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">amount</span>
 
<span class="c32">quantity</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qótjos?</span>
 
<span class="c32">qîonts?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">tótjos</span>
 
<span class="c32">tâonts</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">← ⸻</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">← ⸻</span>
 
| class="c76" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">qótjosqe</span>
 
<span class="c32">qîontsqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">number</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qóti?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">tóti</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">← ⸻</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">← ⸻</span>
 
| class="c76" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">qótiqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">manner</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">(instr.)</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qéj?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">tónō</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">⸻ →</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">Hl̥nô</span>
 
| class="c76" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">qéjqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
|- class="c86"
| class="c79"| <span class="c32">reason</span>
 
<span class="c70 c20">(abl.)</span>
 
| class="c21"| <span class="c32">qô?</span>
 
| class="c72"| <span class="c32">tósmōd</span>
 
| class="c105"| <span class="c32">⸻ →</span>
 
| class="c88"| <span class="c32">Hl̥nôd</span>
 
| class="c76" colspan="2"| <span class="c32">qôqe</span>
 
| class="c85"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c94"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
| class="c68"| <span class="c32">⸻</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>These forms will be explained below.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.cs9lheo3yfxg"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">7.1                        Determiner and pronoun</span> ==
 
<span>There are differences between determiner forms and pronoun forms. Determiner forms are bound morphemes, and can only be used in conjunction with a nominal. So, </span><span class="c27">qós?</span><span> cannot be used independently, but must always be used as </span><span class="c27">qós ǵhmô?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;which person?&quot;.</span>
 
<span>Similarly, the pronoun form can only be used independently, and not to qualify a nominal, such as </span><span class="c27">qís cémt?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;who came?&quot;.</span>
 
<span>In addition, the dual forms </span><span class="c27">qóteros?</span><span class="c20 c27"> </span><span>and </span><span class="c27">qíteros?</span><span> also display this distinction: </span><span class="c27">qóteros ǵhmô cémt?</span><span> &quot;which of the two people came?&quot; as opposed to </span><span class="c27">qíteros cémt?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;which (of the two) came?&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.ttzo0n6qwmyg"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">7.2                        Interrogative and relative forms</span> ==
 
<span>As mentioned in </span><span class="c27">2.2</span><span>, there is absolute syncretism between the interrogative (question) forms, and relative forms, so the same word will be used for </span><span class="c27">qís cémt?</span><span> &quot;who came?&quot; as in </span><span class="c27">só ǵhmô qis cémt </span><span class="c12">&quot;the person who came&quot;. The difference between the words, as seen in the examples, is that the interrogative forms must be stressed, but the relative forms do not need to be.</span>
 
<span id="h.mhfg8r3247nr"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">7.3                        Proximal, medial, distal</span> ==
 
<span>There are three levels of deixis in SAvIE. If one imagines two people speaking to each other, deixis works like this: the </span><span class="c20">proximal</span><span> indicates something which is closest to the speaker, the </span><span class="c20">medial</span><span> indicates something close to the listener, and the </span><span class="c20">distal</span><span class="c12"> far from both.</span>
 
<span id="h.t36200ya73r2"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">7.4                        Location, source, goal</span> ==
 
<span>There is a small difference between these forms. Since </span><span class="c20">source</span><span> and </span><span class="c20">goal</span><span> are fairly self explanatory (indicating respectively where something comes from and what something goes to), location indicates where something exists statically, and lacks any implication of movement. As such, it tends to be used with </span><span class="c27">Héses</span><span> often: </span><span class="c27">kúr Hésti ís?</span><span> &quot;where is he?&quot;, whereas the source/goal forms tend to be used often with verbs of motion: </span><span class="c27">qôdhe cémt ís? </span><span>&quot;where did he come from?&quot;, and </span><span class="c27">qómde Hêjst ís?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;where did he go to?&quot;.</span>
 
<span>However, colloquially, the location form can be used for both of these: </span><span class="c27">kúr cémt ís?</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">kúr Hêjst ís?</span><span class="c12">, especially when the context is clear.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.aqq5b0es5vz3"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">8                        Numerals</span> =
 
<span class="c12">There are two major classes of numerals, the cardinal and the ordinal. Cardinal numerals indicate plain numbers, and ordinal numerals indicate the order of a number in a series.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.mo9h8dx8tacx"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.1                        &quot;one&quot;</span> ==
 
<span>The number 1 conjugates as a regular adjective. Its base form is </span><span class="c27">Hójnos</span><span>, which is related to the indefinite article </span><span class="c27">Hójwos</span><span>, with a suppletive ordinal form </span><span class="c27">pr̥Hwós</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12"></span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Cardinal</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Ordinal</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Hójnos</span>
 
<span class="c12">Hójnā</span>
 
<span class="c12">Hójnas</span>
 
<span class="c12">Hójnom</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">pr̥Hwós ~ pr̥Hmós</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwâ</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwás</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwóm</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive sg.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Hójnosjo</span>
 
<span class="c12">Hójnās</span>
 
<span class="c12">Hójnasjo</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">pr̥Hwósjo</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwâs</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwásjo</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>
 
| class="c34" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">⸻</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">pr̥Hwôs</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwâs</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwájes</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwâ</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive pl.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">pr̥Hwôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwâōm</span>
 
<span class="c12">pr̥Hwájōm</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12">There is no plural form for the cardinal, since you cannot express one of multiple things.</span>
 
<span id="h.siig76yn49br"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.2                        &quot;two&quot;</span> ==
 
<span>The number 2 does not decline for case, its form is </span><span class="c27">dwô</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">dwâH</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">dwój(H)</span><span> in cardinal form. Its ordinal form is either </span><span class="c27">Hánteros</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">Hánterā</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">Hánterom</span><span> (noting the contrastive ending), or </span><span class="c27">séqonts</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">séqontī</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">séqont</span><span> (from a participial form of the verb </span><span class="c27">séqeti</span><span> &quot;to follow&quot;). It also has the special prefix form </span><span class="c27">dwi-</span><span>.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.ahb2rrka3euc"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.3                        &quot;three&quot;</span> ==
 
<span>Beginning with</span><span class="c27"> tréjes</span><span> &quot;three&quot;, the ordinal numbers become more regularised. Despite being slightly irregular, these forms do in fact decline as though their nominative singular ended in </span><span class="c27">-s</span><span>, with the oblique stem </span><span class="c27">trí-</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">tr̥j-</span><span>. The feminine stem, exceptionally, is </span><span class="c27">tisr-</span><span>, and also declines as a noun in </span><span class="c27">-s</span><span>. It also has the special prefix form </span><span class="c27">tri-</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12"></span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Cardinal</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Ordinal</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>
 
| class="c34" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">⸻</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tritós</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritâ</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritás</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritóm</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive sg.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tritósjo</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritâs</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritásjo</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tréjes</span>
 
<span class="c12">tísres</span>
 
<span class="c12">trájes</span>
 
<span class="c12">trî</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tritôs</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritâs</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritájes</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritâ</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive pl.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tr̥jôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">tisrôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">tr̥jájōm</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tritôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritâōm</span>
 
<span class="c12">tritájōm</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.aj5id1p0uwvd"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.3                        &quot;four&quot;</span> ==
 
<span>Similarly to &quot;three&quot;, the number 4 has a feminine stem </span><span class="c27">qétesr- </span><span>(oblique </span><span class="c27">qetesr-</span><span>) and a stem for all other genders </span><span class="c27">qetwór-</span><span> (oblique </span><span class="c27">qetur-</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">qetwr̥-</span><span class="c12">).</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12"></span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Cardinal</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Ordinal</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative sg.</span>
 
| class="c34" rowspan="2"| <span class="c12">⸻</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qetwr̥tós</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tâ</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tás</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tóm</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive sg.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qetwr̥tósjo</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tâs</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tásjo</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Nominative pl.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qetwóres</span>
 
<span class="c12">qétesres</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwórajes</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwôr</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qetwr̥tôs</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tâs</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tásjo</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tâ</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c22 c16">Genitive pl.</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qeturôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetesrôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">qeturájōm</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qetwr̥tôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tâōm</span>
 
<span class="c12">qetwr̥tájōm</span>
 
|}
 
<span id="h.usr1led6yq5f"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.4                        5 to 10</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">These numbers do not decline for gender or case.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12"></span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Cardinal</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Ordinal</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">5</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">pénqe</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">penqetós / -â / -óm</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">6</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">swéḱs</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">sweḱstós / -â / -óm</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">7</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">septḿ̥</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">septm̥mós / -â / -óm</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">8</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">(H)oḱtôw</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">(H)oḱtowós / -â / -óm</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">9</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Hnéwn̥</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Hnewn̥nós / -â / -óm</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">10</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">deḱm̥tós / -â / -óm</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.1zqy4x6tml8u"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.5                        11 to 19</span> ==
 
<span>These numbers do not seem to have reconstructible proto-language forms. As such, I am assigning them values with internal morphology: the number </span><span class="c27">déḱm̥</span><span>, followed by the augment particle </span><span class="c27">Hé</span><span>, and a number between 1 and 9, such as </span><span class="c27">déḱm̥ He Hójnos</span><span> &quot;eleven&quot;, to </span><span class="c27">déḱm̥ He Hnéwn̥</span><span> &quot;nineteen&quot;. Alternatively, the numbers can be prefixed unstressed to </span><span class="c27">déḱm̥</span><span class="c12"> as below.</span>
 
<span class="c12">In counting without referring to any specific object, the neuter forms of the numbers 1-4 should be used. When the numbers are used attributively, they should match the gender and number of the following numeral.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12"></span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Cardinal</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Ordinal</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">11</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He Hójnom</span>
 
<span class="c12">Hojnodéḱm̥</span>
 
| class="c34" rowspan="9"| <span class="c12">deḱm̥tós / -â / -ás / -óm</span>
 
<span class="c12">+</span>
 
<span class="c24 c20">corresponding cardinal numbers</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">12</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He dwójH</span>
 
<span class="c12">dwidéḱm̥</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">13</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He trî</span>
 
<span class="c12">tridéḱm̥</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">14</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He qetwôr</span>
 
<span class="c12">qeturdéḱm̥</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">15</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He pénqe</span>
 
<span class="c12">penqedéḱm̥</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">16</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He swéḱs</span>
 
<span class="c12">sweḱsdéḱm̥</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">17</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He septḿ̥</span>
 
<span class="c12">septm̥déḱm̥</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">18</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He (H)oḱtôw</span>
 
<span class="c12">(H)oḱtōwdéḱm̥</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">19</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">déḱm̥ He Hnéwn̥</span>
 
<span class="c12">Hnewn̥déḱm̥</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.snsmje72lwua"></span>
== <span>8.6                        20 to 90</span> ==
 
<span>Each multiple of 10 has a unique term, and combines with numbers exactly as </span><span class="c27">déḱm̥</span><span class="c12"> does.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c12"></span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Cardinal</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Ordinal</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">20</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">(d)wídḱm̥ti</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">(d)widḱm̥tós</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">30</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tridḱómt</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">tridḱm̥tós</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">40</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qétwr̥dḱómt</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">qétwr̥dkm̥tós</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">50</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">penqedḱómt</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">penqedḱm̥tós</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">60</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">sweḱsdḱómt</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">sweḱsdḱm̥tós</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">70</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">septm̥dḱómt</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">septm̥dkm̥tós</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">80</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">(H)oḱtódḱomt</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">(H)oḱtodḱm̥tós</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">90</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Hnéwn̥dḱomt</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c12">Hnewn̥dkm̥tós</span>
 
|}
 
<span id="h.x2ksqgngvzja"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.7                        Prefix forms</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">There are special forms used for prefixing numbers to nominals.</span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c53"| <span class="c33"></span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">Cardinal</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">1</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">sm̥-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">2</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">dwi-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">3</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">tri-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">4</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">qetwr̥-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">5</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">penqe-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c16 c65 c89">6</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">sweḱs-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">7</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">septm̥-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">8</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">(H)oḱto-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">9</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">Hnewn̥-</span>
 
|- class="c17"
| class="c53"| <span class="c89 c16 c65">10, and multiples</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c33">dekm̥-, -dkm̥t-</span>
 
|}
 
<span id="h.agv4ltxktajm"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.8                        Larger numbers</span> ==
 
<span>The numbers 100 and 1,000 are </span><span class="c27">ḱm̥tóm</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵhéslom</span><span> </span><span class="c27">~</span><span> </span><span class="c27">tûsonts</span><span>. </span><span class="c27">ḱm̥tóm</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵhéslom</span><span> are invariable, whereas </span><span class="c27">tûsonts</span><span> declines as a regular </span><span class="c27">-onts</span><span> noun or adjective. Their ordinal forms are </span><span class="c27">ḱm̥tontós </span><span>&quot;hundredth&quot; and </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵhelsontós</span><span> </span><span class="c27">~</span><span> </span><span class="c27">tūsontós </span><span class="c12">&quot;thousandth&quot;. </span>
 
<span>A derivative of </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵhéslom</span><span>, combined with the augmentative suffix, giving </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵhéslōnom </span><span>(shortened from </span><span class="c20">*(sm̥)ǵhésloHonom</span><span>) is used to mean &quot;million&quot; with the ordinal form </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵheslōntós</span><span>; further derivation gives </span><span class="c27">disǵhéslōnom </span><span>(ordinal form </span><span class="c27">disǵheslōntós</span><span>), meaning &quot;billion&quot; and </span><span class="c27">trisǵhéslōnom</span><span> (ordinal form </span><span class="c27">trisǵheslōntós</span><span>) for &quot;trillion&quot;. Prefix forms can be used even further, giving simple prefixes up to </span><span class="c27">deḱm̥ǵhéslōnom</span><span> &quot;decillion&quot;, and much greater numbers up to </span><span class="c27">Hnéwn̥dḱomtHnéwn̥ǵhéslōnom</span><span class="c12"> for &quot;novemnonagintillion&quot;.</span>
 
<span>The connector </span><span class="c27">He</span><span> should only be used between tens and units of each group of three numbers. So, the number </span><span class="c27">987,654,321</span><span> would be represented as </span><span class="c27">Hnéwn̥ ḱm̥tóm Hoḱtodḱómt </span><span class="c141 c27">He</span><span class="c27"> </span><span class="c27">septḿ̥ ǵhéslōnā, swéḱs ḱm̥tóm penqedḱómt </span><span class="c27 c141">He</span><span class="c27"> qetwôr túsontH, trî ḱm̥tóm (d)wídḱm̥ti </span><span class="c141 c27">He</span><span class="c27"> Hójnom</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span id="h.ntsuwqr6t2zg"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.9                        Multiplicative forms</span> ==
 
<span>Each number can be given a special multiplicative form, producing an adjective meaning &quot;X times&quot;. Multiplicatives are formed by affixing the special prefix of the numbers 1-10 to the word </span><span class="c27">-pléḱs </span><span>&quot;-fold&quot;.</span>
 
<span>For example, 1-4 produce the forms </span><span class="c27">sm̥pléḱs</span><span> &quot;single, onefold&quot;, </span><span class="c27">dwipléḱs</span><span> &quot;double, twofold&quot;, </span><span class="c27">tripléḱs </span><span>&quot;triple, threefold&quot;, and </span><span class="c27">qetwr̥pléḱs</span><span class="c12"> &quot;quadruple, fourfold&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.izhztdmngu9q"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.10                        Exceptional &quot;times&quot; forms.</span> ==
 
<span>The numbers 2 and 3 have the special forms </span><span class="c27">dís</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">trís</span><span>, meaning &quot;twice&quot; and &quot;thrice&quot; respectively.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.x8pmwxrv30m7"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.11                        Collective forms</span> ==
 
<span>A collective numeral is one which specifies &quot;a group of X&quot;. The first form is </span><span class="c27">dwôdwō</span><span>, meaning &quot;pair&quot;. The rest are formed by suffixing </span><span class="c27">-ō</span><span> to the prefix form of a number, with an intervening </span><span class="c27">-l-</span><span> (as if from </span><span class="c27">-lós</span><span>) to prevent hiatus. The stress falls on the prefix in the nominative-vocative-accusative, and the ending in the oblique, as expected for </span><span class="c27">-ō</span><span>. This gives </span><span class="c27">tríō</span><span> &quot;trio, threesome&quot;, </span><span class="c27">qetwŕ̥ō</span><span> &quot;quartet, foursome&quot;, </span><span class="c27">qénqelō</span><span> &quot;quintet, fivesome&quot;, </span><span class="c27">swéḱsō</span><span> &quot;sextet&quot;, </span><span class="c27">septḿ̥ō</span><span> &quot;septet&quot;, </span><span class="c27">(H)oḱtólō</span><span> &quot;octet&quot;, </span><span class="c27">Hnéwnō</span><span> &quot;nonet&quot;, and </span><span class="c27">déḱmō</span><span> &quot;dectet&quot;. Using prefixed numbers makes forms such as </span><span class="c27">dwidéḱmō</span><span> &quot;dozen&quot;. The larger numbers give </span><span class="c27">ḱm̥tolō</span><span> &quot;group of a hundred&quot;, </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵhéslō ~ tûsontō</span><span> &quot;group of a thousand&quot;, and </span><span class="c27">(sm̥)ǵhéslōnō</span><span> &quot;group of a million&quot; with derivatives thereof.</span>
 
<span id="h.u7ca51bkqqmd"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">8.12                        Case agreement</span> ==
 
<span>The numbers 1,3, and 4, given that they decline, are used attributively as though they were adjectives, meaning the noun which they count can be in any case, and the case of the number and noun must agree: </span><span class="c27">Hójnos wīrós</span><span> &quot;one man&quot;, </span><span class="c59 c27">tr̥jôm wīrôm</span><span> &quot;of three men&quot;, </span><span class="c27 c125">qetwr̥mós wīrómos</span><span> &quot;(for/to) four men&quot;. Since other numbers do not decline, only the noun which they modify declines according to the function of the main noun: </span><span class="c27">éǵ wélō pénqe </span><span class="c129 c27">wīróms</span><span class="c27"> </span><span class="c12">&quot;I see five men&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.d37ig9pwu7yu"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">9                        Prepositions</span> =
 
<span>Prepositions in SAvIE always precede the nominal which they modify; they will always be placed before nouns and adjectives. They govern only one of two cases: the </span><span class="c152">locative </span><span>for prepositions which imply location at, near, or in relation to something, and the </span><span class="c129">accusative </span><span>for motion to or from, and everything else. So, prepositions such as </span><span class="c27">Hén</span><span> &quot;in&quot; can be used with different cases to modify their meaning, as in </span><span class="c27">Hén dém</span><span> &quot;in a house&quot; and </span><span class="c27">Hén dôm</span><span class="c12"> &quot;into a house&quot;.</span>
 
<span>Positional adverbs, such as </span><span class="c27">déḱs </span><span>&quot;(on the) right&quot;, can also be used, requiring the </span><span class="c59">genitive</span><span>: </span><span class="c27">déḱs tosjo déms</span><span class="c12"> &quot;to/on the right of the house&quot;.</span>
 
<span>Below is a list of prepositions and positional adverbs and their meanings with the cases they govern.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Preposition</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Meaning</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Preposition</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Meaning</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">bhêǵhs</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">without</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hpó</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c90">from</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">dê</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c90">from</span>
 
<span class="c97">of</span>
 
<span class="c59 c159">thanks to</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hpós</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">after</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">déḱs</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">on/to the right</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">ḱóm</span>
 
| class="c3" rowspan="2"| <span class="c90">with (using, in the company of)</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">énu</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">after</span>
 
<span class="c90">along</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">me</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">(H)éti</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">beyond</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">pér</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c104">through, via, by means of</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hén</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">in</span>
 
<span class="c90">into</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">péri</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">about, regarding, because of</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Héǵhs</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">out (of)</span>
 
<span class="c90">out (from)</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">préti</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">towards</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Heǵhstós</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">outside of</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">préj</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">in front of</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Héǵhsteros</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">besides, other than</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">pró</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">before, in front of</span>
 
<span class="c90">to(ward), up to</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hentér</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">between</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">sn̥(H)tér</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">separate from</span>
 
<span class="c31 c100">without</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hépi</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">on, upon, at (sea etc.), on (animals etc.)</span>
 
<span class="c90">onto</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c16 c35">swéd</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c120">without</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hn̥dó</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c90">into</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">tr̥Hás</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c90">across, along, through</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hn̥dóm</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">inside of, within</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">úd</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c120">upwards</span>
 
<span class="c31 c100">above</span>
 
<span class="c104">+ </span><span class="c104 c20">Hád </span><span class="c90">going up to</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hn̥dhér</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">beneath, underneath</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">upér(i)</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">above, over</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hn̥dhí</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">under</span>
 
<span class="c90">to the bottom of</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">upó</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">under</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hád</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">at</span>
 
<span class="c90">to(wards)</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">wí</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">away from</span>
 
<span class="c31 c100">against</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hánt(i)</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">opposite</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">wír</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">without</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hapó</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">away from</span>
 
<span class="c90">away from</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97"></span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97"></span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Háwti</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100">either / or</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100"></span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c31 c100"></span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c3"| <span class="c35 c16">Hm̥bhí</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97">around, surrounding</span>
 
<span class="c31 c100">about, regarding</span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97"></span>
 
| class="c3"| <span class="c97"></span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.wgnc2ymo6l02"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">10                        Discourse</span> =
 
<span class="c12">The most important addition to this basic overview of grammar is discursive words; those which can be used to carry and shape conversations.</span>
 
<span id="h.yjujlbc00mj"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">10.1                        Questions and particles</span> ==
 
<span>Ordinarily, questions in SAvIE need not be marked either at the start or the end of the sentence. As per </span><span class="c27">3.1</span><span>, questions are indicated by inverting the subject and verb: </span><span class="c27">ís cémt</span><span> &quot;he came&quot; becomes </span><span class="c27">cémt is?</span><span> &quot;did he come?&quot;. When using pro-forms, these start the sentence: </span><span class="c27">qís Hésti ís?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;who is he?&quot;.</span>
 
<span>However, the word </span><span class="c27">Hár ~ Hr̥</span><span>, meaning &quot;so&quot; or &quot;thus&quot; in positive sentences, can be used to introduce a sentence: </span><span class="c27">Hár qís Hésti ís?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;so who is he?&quot;.</span>
 
<span>In addition, the phrase </span><span class="c27">né Hésti…?</span><span> &quot;isn't it…?&quot; can be used with the regular statement to  form a yes/no question in one of two ways: firstly, it can be used to introduce a subordinate clause, as in </span><span class="c27">né Hésti, qid ís cémt?</span><span> &quot;isn't it [the case] that he came?&quot;; the second is that it can be used as a tag question at the end of a sentence, as in </span><span class="c27">ís cémt, né Hésti?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;he came, isn't it?&quot;.</span>
 
<span>The simple responses to yes/no questions is </span><span class="c27">nójnom</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">né tód</span><span>, or </span><span class="c27">Hóju qíd</span><span> &quot;no&quot;, and the positive is </span><span class="c27">já ~ sejḱe ~ tód</span><span>. There is no fundamental difference between any of these words; they have different origins and can be used depending on the speaker's preference for their source. For example, </span><span class="c27">nójnom</span><span> is a shortening of </span><span class="c27">né (H)ójnom</span><span>, from Latin </span><span class="c20">nōn</span><span>, whereas </span><span class="c27">Hóju qíd </span><span>is the form of Greek </span><span class="c20">οὐ(κ) ~ οὐ(χ)</span><span> and Armenian </span><span class="c20">ոչ</span><span>; meanwhile, </span><span class="c27">já</span><span> is ubiquitous in Germanic, </span><span class="c27">séjḱe</span><span> also from Latin </span><span class="c20">sīc</span><span>, and </span><span class="c27">(né)</span><span> </span><span class="c27">tód </span><span>as seen in Celtic languages, such as Welsh </span><span class="c20">do ~ naddo</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span>In addition to the simple answers, SAvIE can produce yes/no answers to polar questions by repeating the verb either in a positive or negative polarity. If the question were </span><span class="c27">cémt ís?</span><span> &quot;did he come?&quot;, a positive response would be </span><span class="c27">cémt</span><span> &quot;he came (yes)&quot;, and a negative response would be </span><span class="c27">né(ghe) cémt</span><span> &quot;he didn't come (no)&quot;. Note that the negative particle here can either be </span><span class="c27">né</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">néghe</span><span>; the </span><span class="c27">-ghe</span><span> suffix intensifies the previous particle.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.tcr9drrsn6xf"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">10.2                        Subordinate clauses</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">These can be introduced in one of two ways.</span>
 
<span>The first is introducing an entirely independent subordinate clause with the word </span><span class="c27">qid</span><span>, such as in </span><span class="c27">éǵ wéjdō, qid ís cémt</span><span class="c12"> &quot;I know that he came&quot;.</span>
 
<span>Clauses that are more semantically linked to the antecedent use interrogative-relative pronouns: </span><span class="c27">só wīrós, qésjo cên cémt… </span><span class="c12">&quot;the man, whose wife came…&quot;, literally &quot;the man, of whom [the] wife came…&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.jdi4b1foind"></span>
== <span class="c16 c41">10.3                        Hypothetical sentences</span> ==
 
<span>Hypothetical sentences are introduced by </span><span class="c27">sô ~ séj </span><span>&quot;if&quot;, which is an innovated and fossilized thematicisation of </span><span class="c27">só</span><span> in the instrumental and locative cases, respectively, meaning &quot;with this&quot; or &quot;in this&quot;. This is modelled on the etymology of the Latin </span><span class="c20">sī</span><span>. </span><span class="c27">mā</span><span> can be used as in Celtic, </span><span class="c27">jéj</span><span> as in Baltic, or </span><span class="c27">qéj</span><span class="c12"> as in some Slavic. None of these words differs in meaning.</span>
 
<span>The consequence can be introduced without any particle, but can also optionally be introduced with the particle </span><span class="c27">tómḱe</span><span> &quot;then, in that case&quot;, or </span><span class="c27">tóqe</span><span class="c12"> &quot;then&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.nt8t0q9xw7g6"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.3.1                Conditionals</span> ===
 
<span>The verb </span><span class="c27">skéles </span><span>&quot;to owe&quot; should be used in the deponent aorist subjunctive to form a periphrastic conditional tense with the purportative, thus giving </span><span class="c27">séj ís cémt, éǵ skêlsōr kápos wl̥Htóm welos ím</span><span> &quot;If he came, I would have wanted to see him&quot;. When there are two verbs that require the purportative in a row, one is in the accusative </span><span class="c27">(é)-os</span><span> form, and the second is in the genitive </span><span class="c27">(é)-esos </span><span>form: </span><span class="c27">séj ís cémti, éǵ skêlsōr wélHos wélesos ím </span><span>&quot;If he comes, I would want to see him&quot;. Literally this means something like &quot;...that I owe wanting of seeing&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.7oxqmpco3bmf"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">10.4                        Negation of nominals</span> ==
 
<span>Nominals must be negated by the particle </span><span class="c27">néghe</span><span> &quot;not&quot;; this can be attached directly to nominals, such as </span><span class="c27">néghe méǵHs</span><span> &quot;not great&quot;, or </span><span class="c27">néghe wīrós</span><span> &quot;not a man&quot;. Determiners can also precede the nominal: </span><span class="c27">néghe só wīrós</span><span class="c12"> &quot;not the/this man&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.q60qfvys4zhp"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">10.5                        Either/or</span> ==
 
<span>&quot;Either&quot; and &quot;or&quot; are both expressed by the word </span><span class="c27">Háwti</span><span>: </span><span class="c27">Háwti cm̥dhí ḱóm mé, Háwti méne </span><span>&quot;either come with me, or stay&quot;.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.3wmr3l5nxk2a"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">10.6                        Prohibition</span> ==
 
<span>In conjunction with the imperative verb form, the particle </span><span class="c27">mê</span><span> &quot;do not…!&quot; (from </span><span class="c20">*meh₁</span><span> as seen in Greek </span><span class="c20">μή</span><span>) is used to express prohibition: </span><span class="c27">Hidhí!</span><span> &quot;go!&quot; becomes </span><span class="c27">mê Hidhí!</span><span> &quot;do not go!&quot;</span>
 
<span id="h.xek411nn3rwt"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">10.7                        Conjunctions</span> ==
 
<span id="h.r4q864ge8peb"></span>
=== <span>10.7.1                Addition</span> ===
 
<span>Following the presence of </span><span class="c20">A and B</span><span> constructions in SAE, this is the preferred structure for the </span><span class="c20">and</span><span> construction. Rather than using the Proto-Indo-European </span><span class="c20">*-kʷe</span><span> suffix, alternative strategies are preferred. These are </span><span class="c27">Hé</span><span> (the augment </span><span class="c20">*h₁é</span><span>), </span><span class="c27">ḱḿ̥ti </span><span>(modelled on the Greek </span><span class="c20">καί</span><span>), </span><span class="c27">Héti</span><span> (modelled on the Latin </span><span class="c20">et</span><span>), </span><span class="c27">Hánti</span><span> (synonymous with the preposition, modelled on Proto-Germanic </span><span class="c20">*andi</span><span>), </span><span class="c27">Héj</span><span> (modelled on Proto-Slavic </span><span class="c20">*i</span><span>), or </span><span class="c27">Hṓd </span><span>(modelled on Proto-Balto-Slavic </span><span class="c20">*ō</span><span>, based on a hypothetical ablative PIE form </span><span class="c20">*h₁ōd</span><span class="c12">).</span>
 
<span>&quot;Also&quot; can be expressed with </span><span class="c27">qōdqe</span><span>, a fossilised ablative of a thematicisation of </span><span class="c27">qís</span><span>, meaning approximately &quot;and from which&quot;, or </span><span class="c27">Héwghe</span><span> (modelled on Proto-Germanic </span><span class="c20">*auk</span><span class="c12">).</span>
 
<span id="h.d04pjjsuncv9"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.7.2                Consequence</span> ===
 
<span>Consequence in the form of &quot;then&quot; or &quot;so&quot; is expressed with </span><span class="c27">tôd</span><span>, yet another fossilised ablative of a thematicised </span><span class="c27">só ~ sâ ~ tód</span><span>, such as </span><span class="c27">éǵ cêm, tôd ís lêjqst </span><span class="c12">&quot;I came, then he left&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.c5zloxjov42o"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.7.3                Purpose, intent</span> ===
 
<span>An intended consequence, expressing &quot;so that&quot; or &quot;in order to&quot;, is expressed with a similar form to the above, </span><span class="c27">téj</span><span>, a thematicised dative meaning &quot;to this&quot;, and a subordinate clause introduced by </span><span class="c27">qid</span><span> with the verb in the subjunctive, such as </span><span class="c27">éǵ qrêjHsm̥ tód, téj qid tû Hédesi íd </span><span class="c12">&quot;I bought this so you could eat it&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.q77orig2pvxa"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.7.4                Alternatives</span> ===
 
<span>The basic words &quot;or&quot; and &quot;nor&quot; are expressed by </span><span class="c27">íwe ~ íwē</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">éjwe ~ éjwē</span><span> (based on </span><span class="c20">*i-</span><span> and </span><span class="c20">*ey-</span><span> as pronominal bases) in the positive polarity (</span><span class="c27">éǵ íwe tû</span><span> &quot;I or you&quot;) and </span><span class="c27">néwe</span><span> in the negative (</span><span class="c27">néghe éǵ néwe tû</span><span class="c12"> &quot;not I nor you, not me and not you&quot;).</span>
 
<span class="c27">-we ~ -wē</span><span> can also be suffixed to any words meaning &quot;if&quot; to produce &quot;but if&quot; or &quot;if, on the other hand&quot;: </span><span class="c27">séjwe né cémti ís, qíd tôd?</span><span class="c12"> &quot;but if he doesn't come, what then?&quot;.</span>
 
<span id="h.cq7hwnfcq426"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.7.5                Exceptions</span> ===
 
<span>The word &quot;but&quot; can be expressed either as </span><span class="c27">íde ~ éjde</span><span> (using the Proto-Indo-European </span><span class="c20">*de</span><span> contrastive particle) or </span><span class="c27">Heǵhstós</span><span> (modelled on the Greek </span><span class="c20">εχτός</span><span> and Proto-Celtic </span><span class="c20">*extos</span><span>) at the beginning of a phrase, and the postclitic </span><span class="c27">de</span><span> otherwise to indicate a break in a sentence. Since it breaks a sentence apart, the part of the sentence ending </span><span class="c27">de</span><span class="c12"> is considered disjunct, and can refer either to a subject or an object. The case of the preceding nominal can match its function in the following sentence.</span>
 
<span>So, in </span><span class="c27">só Háljos/tóm Háljom de, né wêlsm̥ éǵ ím</span><span> &quot;the other one, however, I didn't see it&quot;, note the presence of both </span><span class="c27">Háljos</span><span> and </span><span class="c27">Háljom</span><span>, both of which are treated slightly differently. In the nominative, the phrase ending </span><span class="c27">de</span><span class="c12"> is treated more as a topic and the antecedent as a comment; in the accusative, it is treated as a disjunct object rather than a topic, and matches its expected function in the antecedent.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.rda484yssqri"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">10.8                        Politeness and formality</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">Several strategies can be employed to introduce formality to SAvIE. The majority of these should be limited to forms of address, but some others exist.</span>
 
<span id="h.ir26hf6hx2xe"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.8.1                T-V distinction</span> ===
 
<span>Although many modern Indo-European languages employ a T-V distinction, it is best avoided in SAvIE. However, usage thereof should not be considered entirely incorrect. If a speaker chooses to use a T-V distinction, the expected follows: the 2nd person plural forms take the place of the singular forms in polite speech. So, one person is referred to politely as </span><span class="c27">jû</span><span> rather than </span><span class="c27">tû</span><span>, and verbs and adjectives are inflected in the plural rather than the singular. This turns the informal </span><span class="c27">tû Hési méǵHs</span><span> “you are tall” into </span><span class="c27">jû Hsté méǵHas</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.b8ig8p3udeax"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.8.2                Third person verb constructions</span> ===
 
<span class="c12">Rather than using the second-person plural for a more classically Indo-European T-V distinction, the third person can be used as it is employed in various modern languages. This category includes some formations innovated by SAvIE.</span>
 
<span id="h.beetq9fphejx"></span>
==== <span class="c77">10.8.2.1                Praising the listener</span> ====
 
<span>This follows the pattern of the Spanish </span><span class="c20">usted</span><span>, which is derived from </span><span class="c20">vuestra merced</span><span> “your mercy”. As the etymology of </span><span class="c20">merced</span><span> is so opaque, it has been discarded entirely. Instead, many synonymous constructions can be built from </span><span class="c27">cérHtis</span><span> “praise, grace”, whose root </span><span class="c27">cérH-</span><span> gives the Latin </span><span class="c20">grātia</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span>This can optionally be supplemented with a second-person possessive adjective </span><span class="c27">tós</span><span> (or any of its variants, if avoiding T-V) or </span><span class="c27">usós </span><span>(if using T-V), giving </span><span class="c27">tâ cérHtis</span><span> or </span><span class="c27">usâ cérHtis</span><span class="c12">. The resulting phrase then inflects in its entirety. This is then used with a third-person verb.</span>
 
<span id="h.dwl663kcrjqq"></span>
==== <span class="c77">10.8.2.2                Invariant third-person plural</span> ====
 
<span>The pronoun </span><span class="c27">î</span><span>, along with the third-person plural verbal forms, can be used to refer to a single person politely.</span>
 
<span id="h.ooc5ly1xhnmv"></span>
==== <span class="c77">10.8.2.3                Alternative pronominal forms</span> ====
 
<span>The pronoun </span><span class="c27">ḱénos / -ā / -as</span><span>, declined according to both case and number depending on the number of referents, can be used with the corresponding verbal number of the third person in polite speech. In addition to the above established pronoun, the neologism </span><span class="c27">(H)irós / -â / -ás</span><span>, an adjectival form modelled on the third-person pronouns </span><span class="c27">ís / î / jás</span><span> can be used as a polite second-person pronoun. This also declines as expected, giving </span><span class="c27">(H)irôs / -âs / -ájes</span><span class="c12"> for multiple referents.</span>
 
<span id="h.m4674hse1xy8"></span>
=== <span class="c63">10.8.3                Titles and forms of address</span> ===
 
<span>People can be referred to with titles attached to their names, in addition to the formal verb constructions given above. The title </span><span class="c20">Mister</span><span> and its cognates can be given as </span><span class="c27">méǵHisteros / -ā / -as</span><span>, while common Romance terms </span><span class="c20">señor, signore, monsieur</span><span> are given as </span><span class="c27">sénjōs / sn̥jésī / -josas</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span>Due to a close proximity to the meanings of their individual stems, the former should be reserved for distinguished persons with some form of appointed title, and the latter for older people. A much more neutral but familiar term would be </span><span class="c27">soqHjós / -â / -ás</span><span>, cognate with Latin </span><span class="c20">socius</span><span>. A less familiar form would be </span><span class="c27">Hwésus / Huséwī / Huséwy</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span>Each of these titles is abbreviated, respectively, </span><span class="c27">m.</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">s.</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">so.</span><span>, and </span><span class="c27">u.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.728eorgqqhso"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">11                        Further rules and conventions of writing</span> =
 
<span id="h.3q4zwqxfn8d"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">11.1                        Writing system</span> ==
 
<span>The default writing system in this document has been the Latin script, but this need not necessarily be the case. In </span><span class="c27">Appendix D</span><span class="c12"> there is a full alphabet shown with the Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Armenian, and Devanagari scripts, all of which can be used effectively to write SAvIE. For ease and universality, the Latin alphabet may be preferred, but this Appendix allows for a wider range of writing.</span>
 
<span id="h.sagni0rfa6rv"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">11.2                        Case</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">SAvIE should be written entirely unicase. This means that there should be no distinction made between lowercase and uppercase letters. Although the letters ⟨h⟩ and ⟨H⟩ both exist in the Latin alphabet, it should be noted that these are two different letters with two different functions, not merely variants of one another. Common usages of capital letters in some languages, such as indicating proper nouns, are not treated specially in SAvIE, and should all be written lowercase.</span>
 
<span class="c12">This being said, this might be a difficult habit to break for some users. The practice should be avoided as per the standards of this document, but should not be seen as incorrect otherwise.</span>
 
<span id="h.244lgf7etpk4"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">11.3                        Clause- and sentence-final punctuation</span> ==
 
<span>In all alphabets, natively-used punctuation should be employed. Where applicable, the comma ⟨,⟩ and period ⟨.⟩ should be used to indicate a break in and termination of a sentence, respectively. The relevant question and exclamation marks should also serve their respective purposes.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.cfzdoygsleak"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">11.4                        Quotation</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">For block quotation, such as lines of dialogue, an em-dash ⟨—⟩ should be used for each line of dialogue, followed either by a double space, or a tab stop.</span>
 
<span class="c12">For inline quotation, a double guillemet ⟨« »⟩ should wrapped around a quotation, and a nested quotation within that should be marked with a single guillemet ⟨‹ ›⟩.</span>
 
<span class="c12">This usage can be mirrored with quotation marks, directional or otherwise. Double quotation marks ⟨&quot; &quot;⟩ ⟨“ ”⟩ enclose the main quotation, with single marks ⟨' '⟩ ⟨‘ ’⟩ enclosing a nested quotation.</span>
 
<span class="c12">In addition, lowered quotation marks can be used as in German and Slavic languages, either both low ⟨„ „⟩, or high and low ⟨„ ”⟩, with single marks ⟨‚ ‚⟩ and ⟨‚ ’⟩ for nested quotes. It is strongly preferred that the direction of punctuation marks conform to the above examples, but inverting one or both (such as ⟨» «⟩ or ⟨„ “⟩) should not be considered incorrect.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.6t0zeyjksi34"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">11.5                        Larger breaks</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">Any piece of text above a sentence can be broken up with special typographical conventions.</span>
 
<span>Paragraphs are broken by a single newline character, with new paragraphs optionally beginning with a tab stop. Collections of paragraphs can be broken up into logical groups by beginning the paragraph of a new logical group with the section symbol </span><span class="c27">§</span><span> followed by a tab stop. Groups of sections can be divided by placing an asterism symbol </span><span class="c27">⁂</span><span> on its own line, and beginning a new paragraph on a new line afterwards as expected. The asterism can optionally be padded with an extra empty line on either side of it.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.k44d5itcf1eq"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">12                        Borrowing and conversion to SAvIE</span> =
 
<span class="c12">Borrowing from other languages forms an integral part of the function of all Indo-European languages; whether through language contact, colonial or imperial superstrata or adstrata, archaism, or scientific and technical vocabulary, borrowing is crucial in the formation of a wider vocabulary.</span>
 
<span class="c12">The strategies for borrowing words into SAvIE is that they must preferably be nativised, using known etymologies to convert words into SAvIE as though they had originated their to begin with. Where this cannot be done, or where it would not be appropriate to do so, words can be borrowed in directly, using SAvIE phonology where possible, and several additions to the alphabet where not possible.</span>
 
<span id="h.v6ds8kofsll6"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">12.1                        Sounds foreign to SAvIE</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">All sounds native to the language have been listed at the very start of this document. However, these do not encompass all possible sounds that could be represented in SAvIE for borrowings. Extra consonant sounds and their corresponding graphs are as follows.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Sound</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Graph</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/f/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨f⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/ɣ/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨ǥ⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/h/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨ħ⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/x/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨x⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/ʃ/, /tʃ/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨š⟩, ⟨tš⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/ʒ/, /dʒ/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨ž⟩, ⟨dž⟩, ⟨ǰ⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/v/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨v⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">/z/</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c12">⟨z⟩</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>Uvular sounds such as [q], [χ], and [ʁ] can be converted to their non-uvular counterparts [k], [x], [r ~ ɾ ~ ɹ].</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12">In addition, the following vowel sounds can be used:</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Sound</span>
 
| class="c44"| <span class="c15 c16">Graph</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">/æ/</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">⟨ä⟩</span>
 
<span class="c12">⟨ā̈⟩ when long</span>
 
<span class="c12">⟨a̋⟩ when stressed</span>
 
<span class="c12">⟨ä̂⟩ when stressed and long</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">/ə ~ ɜ/ and similar, when non-native</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">⟨ë⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">/ɨ ~ ɯ/</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">⟨ï⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">/ø ~ œ/ and similar</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">⟨ö⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">/y ~ ʏ/ and similar</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">⟨ü⟩</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">Any nasal vowel</span>
 
| class="c53"| <span class="c12">⟨ã ẽ ĩ⟩ etc.</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span class="c12">Non-native sounds should only be spelled using the above alternative characters where it is necessary or especially desirable to represent non-native pronunciation. This really need only be the case in words which are nativised, or for educational purposes. When writing the names of people, places, and things, and when those are not integrated into SAvIE, their official spelling or transliteration should be used instead.</span>
 
<span class="c12">Equally, words which are grammaticalised can be spelt with nativised phonology. This is often a simple matter of finding the closest representative sounds which exist in SAvIE, but can present some difficulties. In particular, given the lack of fricative sounds /f v h/, the sounds ⟨bh gh⟩ can be used instead.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>So, for example, the French word </span><span class="c20">bureau</span><span class="c12"> could be borrowed in as any of the following:</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
* <span class="c27">bűro, büró</span><span class="c12">: indeclinable, with foreign phonology</span>
* <span class="c27">bűrō, bürô</span><span>: declinable as a masculine </span><span class="c27">-ō</span><span class="c12"> noun, with foreign phonology</span>
 
* <span class="c27">bjúro, bjuró</span><span class="c12">: indeclinable, with native phonology</span>
* <span class="c27">bjúrō, bjurô</span><span>: declinable as a masculine </span><span class="c27">-ō</span><span class="c12"> noun, with native phonology</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>in addition to the borrowed spelling and pronunciation </span><span class="c27">bureau</span><span class="c12">.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span>Note also how the non-native stress pattern is subject to interpretation in how it is represented in SAvIE.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span>In addition, the grammatical pattern that this word has been made to fit is purely representative. It could just as easily be </span><span class="c27">bűros ~ bűrosjo</span><span>, </span><span class="c27">bűrom ~ bűrosjo</span><span>, or even </span><span class="c27">bűros ~ bűresos</span><span class="c12">. Ideally, the chosen form should represent the original word and, if applicable, its declension pattern as best as possible.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.evdiobhe7huq"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">12.2                        Borrowed morphology</span> ==
 
<span class="c12">Some morphology, such as affixes in particular, is so commonly shared between languages as to be worth borrowing into SAvIE. Affixes in particular can form large quantities of vocabulary and can, with some modification and filling in by analogy, be nativised into SAvIE for use in new vocabulary.</span>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Original suffix</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Cognates</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c15 c16">Form in SAvIE</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-άζω</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c33"></span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(  ́)-adjeti </span><span class="c62 c20">v.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-(ο)-ειδής</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-oid</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(e)-wéjdēs ~ (é)-wéjdesos </span><span class="c62 c20">adj.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ίζω</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ize / -ise</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(  ́)-idjeti </span><span class="c62 c20">v.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr </span><span class="c62 c20">-ισμός</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ism</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(∅)-ismós </span><span class="c62 c20">n.m</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ιστής</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ist</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(é)-idtās </span><span class="c62 c20">n.m/n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-λογία</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-logy</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">=lògiā (close compound) </span><span class="c62 c20">n.f</span>
 
<span class="c65">lógiā (loose compound) </span><span class="c62 c20">n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-λόγος</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-logue</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">=logòs (close) </span><span class="c62 c20">n.m</span>
 
<span class="c65">logós (loose) </span><span class="c62 c20">n.m</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-(η)τής</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-ete</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">-tās ~ -tās (&lt; -tāos) </span><span class="c62 c20">n.m/n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr </span><span class="c62 c20">-φιλία</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-philia</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">=bhìliā (close) </span><span class="c65 c20">n.f</span>
 
<span class="c65">bhíliā (loose) </span><span class="c62 c20">n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">A.Gr </span><span class="c62 c20">-φιλος</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-phile</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">=bhìlos / -ā / -om (close) </span><span class="c65 c20">n.</span>
 
<span class="c65">bhílos / -ā / -om (loose) </span><span class="c62 c20">n.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-arian</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ārius / -a / -um</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(∅)-āsjós / -â / -ás / -óm </span><span class="c62 c20">n.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-ics</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Gr. </span><span class="c65 c20">-ικά</span>
 
<span class="c65">Gr. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ική</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(é)-ikā, (∅)-kâ </span><span class="c62 c20">n.n</span>
 
<span class="c65">(é)-ikā, (∅)-kâ </span><span class="c62 c20">n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-istics</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">→ Ger. </span><span class="c62 c20">-istik</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(é)-idtikā </span><span class="c65 c20">n.n / n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ization</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Sp. </span><span class="c65 c20">-ización</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(é)-idātīō </span><span class="c65 c20">n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ālis / -āle</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-al</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(  ́)-ālis ~ (∅)-āléjs </span><span class="c65 c20">adj.m/f</span><sup>[[#ftnt3|[3]]]</sup>
 
<span class="c65">(  ́)-āli ~ (∅)-āléjs </span><span class="c62 c20">adj.n</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c62 c20">-āticus / -a / -um</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-atic</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(∅)-ātikós / -â / -óm </span><span class="c62 c20">adj.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c20 c62">-ātiō</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ation</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(é)-ātīō </span><span class="c62 c20">n.f</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c62 c20">-ātus / -a / -um</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-ate</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(∅)-ātós </span><span class="c62 c20">adj.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c65 c20">-idus / -a / -um</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-id</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(é)-idhos / -ā / -om </span><span class="c65 c20">adj.</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c62 c20">-īlis / -īle</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-ile</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">(  ́)-ilis ~ (∅)-iléjs </span><span class="c62 c20">adj.m/f</span>
 
<span class="c65">(  ́)-ili ~ (∅)-iléjs </span><span class="c62 c20">adj.n</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Lat. </span><span class="c65 c20">-osus</span><span class="c65"> via A.Gr </span><span class="c62 c20">-ώδης</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c65">Eng. </span><span class="c65 c20">-ose, -ous</span>
 
| class="c34"| <span class="c33">(é)=Hòdēs ~ =Hòdesos (close)</span>
 
<span class="c33">Hódēs ~ Hódesos (loose)</span>
 
|}
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.4cyuzxumtg6m"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">A                        Verb template</span> =
 
<span class="c89 c16 c87">single transitivity:</span>
 
<span class="c40">nonpast thematic</span><span class="c87">:         (é)-e-ti ~ (é)-o-nti                </span><span class="c40">nonpast athematic</span><span class="c56">:         (é)-ti ~ (∅)-énti</span>
 
<span class="c40">né-nonpast</span><span class="c56">:                                                        (∅)-⟨né⟩-ti ~ (∅)-⟨n⟩-énti</span>
 
<span class="c40">imperfect thematic</span><span class="c87">: (é)-e-t ~ (é)-o-nt                </span><span class="c40">imperfect athematic</span><span class="c56">:        (é)-t ~ (∅)-ént</span>
 
<span class="c40">né-imperfect</span><span class="c56">                                                        (∅)-⟨né⟩-t ~ (∅)-⟨n⟩-énti</span>
 
<span class="c40">NP-T subjunctive:</span><span class="c87">        (é)-ē-ti ~ (é)-ō-nti                </span><span class="c40">NP-A subjunctive</span><span class="c56">:                 (é)-e-ti ~ (e)-o-nti</span>
 
<span class="c40">past subjunctive regardless of thematicity</span><span class="c56">:                                (ê)-seti ~ (ê)-sonti</span>
 
<span class="c89 c16 c87">transitive:</span>
 
<span class="c40">nonpast</span><span class="c56">:                         (é)-j-e-ti ~ (é)-j-o-nti                bhrégjeti ~ bhrégjonti</span>
 
<span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">                                        Hésmi bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">imperfect</span><span class="c56">:                 (é)-j-e-t ~ (é)-j-o-nt                bhrégjet ~ bhrégjont</span>
 
<span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">                                        Hésm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c89 c16 c87">intransitive:</span>
 
<span class="c40">nonpast</span><span class="c56">:                         (∅)-j-é-ti ~ (∅)-j-ó-nti        bhr̥gjéti ~ bhr̥gjónti</span>
 
<span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">                                                Hésmi bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">imperfect</span><span class="c56">:                 (∅)-j-é-t ~ (∅)-j-ó-nt                bhr̥gjét ~ bhr̥gjónt</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c99 c87">Hésm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c89 c16 c87">shared:</span>
 
<span class="c40">eventive aorist</span><span class="c56">:                (ê)-s-t ~ (é)-s-n̥t                bhrêgst ~ bhrégsn̥t</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">bhéwHsm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">stative aorist</span><span class="c87">:</span><span class="c99 c87">                </span><span class="c56">(ó)-e ~ (∅)-êr                Hwóse ~ Husêr</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">bhówHe HusómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">stative subjunctive</span><span class="c87">:</span><span class="c87 c99">                </span><span class="c56">(é)-e-ti ~ (é)-o-nti                Hwéseti ~ Hwésonti</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">bhéwHeti HusómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">habitual</span><span class="c56">:                         (∅)-é-t ~ (∅)-ó-nt                bhr̥gét ~ bhr̥gónt</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">bhūóm bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">habitual subjunctive</span><span class="c56">:         (∅)-ê-ti ~ (∅)-ô-nti                bhr̥gêti~ bhr̥gônti</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c120 c99 c87 c123">bhūômi bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c89 c16 c87">non-finite forms:</span>
 
<span class="c40">present participle</span><span class="c56">:                 (é)-onts ~ (∅)-n̥tés                bhrégonts ~ bhr̥gn̥tés</span>
 
<span class="c40">passive participle</span><span class="c56">:                 (∅)-ó-mHnos                bhr̥gómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">past participle</span><span class="c56">:                 (∅)-tós                        bhr̥gtós</span>
 
<span class="c40">infinitive</span><span class="c87">:                        </span><span class="c144">(</span><span class="c87">é)-es                        bhréges</span>
 
<span class="c89 c16 c87">compound tenses:</span>
 
<span class="c40">perfect</span><span class="c56">:                        kápti + PastP                kápmi bhr̥gtóm</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c99 c87">kápmi bhūtóm bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">pluperfect</span><span class="c56">:                 kâpst + PastP                kâpsm̥ bhr̥gtóm</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                </span><span class="c99 c87">kâpsm̥ bhūtóm bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">future tense</span><span class="c56">:                Héjti + PresP locative        Héjmi bhr̥gént</span>
 
<span class="c87">                                                        </span><span class="c123 c120 c99 c87">Héjmi bhūjént bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
<span class="c40">continuous</span><span class="c87">:                Héses + PresP                Hésmi/Hésm̥/Hêsm̥ </span><span class="c20 c87">etc.</span><span class="c56"> bhrégontom</span>
 
<span class="c99 c87">Hésmi/Hésm̥/Hêsm̥ bhûjont bhr̥gjómHnos</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span>Law 1: *</span><span class="c20">Vwm</span><span> &gt; *</span><span class="c20">Vːm</span><span> and *</span><span class="c20">VHm</span><span> &gt; *</span><span class="c20">Vːm</span><span class="c12">         (Stang's law)</span>
 
<span>Law 2:                </span><span class="c24 c20">/-VRs/, */-VRH/ &gt; *-VːR</span>
 
<span class="c20">                /-VRH-/ &gt; *-VR-                </span><span class="c12">(Szemerényi's law)</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.rmh36ulgjvci"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">B                        Sample vocabulary</span> =
 
<span>The following sections give short lists of vocabulary separated by parts of speech.</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.6h8lazw6sh37"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">B.1                        Verbs</span> ==
 
<span class="c120 c133">verb                        infinitive        3sg nonpast        3sg imp.        3sg aorist</span>
 
<span class="c27">be able                </span><span class="c12">gélHes                gl̥Hnéwti        gl̥Hnéwt        gélHt</span>
 
<span class="c27">bake</span><span class="c12">                        bhôges        bhôgeti        bhôget        bhôHgst</span>
 
<span class="c27">be                        </span><span class="c12">Héses                Hésti                Hést                bhéwst</span>
 
<span class="c27">begin                        </span><span class="c12">kénes                kéneti                kénet                kênst</span>
 
<span class="c27">breathe out                </span><span class="c12">dhwéses        dhwésti        dhwést        dhwêst</span>
 
<span class="c27">burn</span><span class="c12">                        Héwses        Héwseti        Héwset        Hêwst</span>
 
<span class="c27">change (intr.)</span><span class="c12">        miés                méjor                méjto                mêjsto</span>
 
<span class="c27">change (tr.)</span><span class="c12">                mójnēs        mojnéjeti        mojnéjet        mêjnst</span>
 
<span class="c27">come                        </span><span class="c12">cémes                cm̥jéti                cm̥jét                cémt</span>
 
<span class="c27">cook</span><span class="c12">                        péqes                péqeti                péqet                pêqst</span>
 
<span class="c27">defecate                </span><span class="c12">ḱéqes                ḱéqti                ḱéqt                ḱêqst</span>
 
<span class="c27">do                        </span><span class="c12">dhês                dhêti                dhêt                dhêHst</span>
 
<span class="c27">drink                        </span><span class="c12">píbes                píbeti                píbet                pôHst</span>
 
<span class="c27">be dressed                </span><span class="c12">wésjes                usjéti                usjét                wêst</span>
 
<span class="c27">eat</span><span class="c12">                        Hédes                Hédti                Hédt                Hêdst</span>
 
<span class="c27">exchange</span><span class="c12">                méjtHes        méjtHeti        méjtHet        mêjtHst</span>
 
<span class="c27">go                        </span><span class="c12">Héjes                Héjti                Héjt                Hêjst</span>
 
<span class="c27">grow</span><span>                        Háles                Háleti                Hálet                Hêlst</span>
 
<span class="c27">have</span><span class="c12">                        kápes                kápti                kápt                kâpst</span>
 
<span class="c27">hear                        </span><span class="c12">HáwdhHes        HáwdhHeti        HáwdhHet        HêwdhHst</span>
 
<span class="c27">be hungry</span><span class="c12">                </span>
 
<span class="c27">know</span><span class="c12">                        wéjdes        wéjdeti        wéjdet                wêjdst</span>
 
<span class="c27">like                        </span><span class="c12">bhréwgjes        bhrûgjeti        bhrûgjet        bhréwgst</span>
 
<span class="c27">make                        </span><span class="c12">dhêkes        dhHkjéti        dhHkjét        dhêkst</span>
 
<span class="c12">                        wérǵes        wérǵeti        wérǵet        wêrǵst</span>
 
<span class="c27">recognize</span><sup>[[#ftnt4|[4]]]</sup><span class="c27">                </span><span class="c12">ǵnôs                ǵn̥nôti                ǵn̥nôt                ǵnôt</span>
 
<span class="c27">run                        </span><span>kérses                kr̥séti                kr̥sét                kêrst (← </span><span class="c20">*kḗrs-s-t</span><span class="c12">)</span>
 
<span class="c27">say</span><span class="c12">                        séqes                séqeti                séqet                sêqst</span>
 
<span class="c27">see                        </span><span class="c12">wéles                wéleti                wélet                wêlst</span>
 
<span class="c27">share</span><span class="c12">                        dhajlés        dhájletor        dhájleto        dhâjlsto</span>
 
<span class="c27">shout                        </span><span class="c12">gâres                gâreti                gâret                gêHrst</span>
 
<span class="c27">show                        </span><span class="c12">déjḱes                déjḱti                déjḱt                dêjḱst</span>
 
<span class="c27">sing</span><span class="c12">                        kânes                kHnéti                kHnét                kânst</span>
 
<span class="c27">speak</span><span class="c12">                        wéqes                wéqti                wéqt                wêqst</span>
 
<span class="c27">stay                        </span><span class="c12">ménes                méneti        ménet                mênst</span>
 
<span class="c27">take                        </span><span class="c12">némes                németi        német                nêmst</span>
 
<span class="c27">talk</span><span class="c12">                        tl̥qés                tlóqetor        tlóqeto        têlqsto</span>
 
<span class="c27">taste                        </span><span>ǵéwses        ǵéwseti        ǵéwset        ǵêwst (</span><span class="c20">← *ǵēws-s-t</span><span class="c12">)</span>
 
<span class="c27">think                        </span><span class="c12">ténges                tn̥gjéti                tn̥gjét                têngst</span>
 
<span class="c27">try                        </span><span class="c12">sknés                skénetor        skéneto        skênsto</span>
 
<span class="c27">turn</span><span class="c12">                        wértes                wértti                wért                wêrtst</span>
 
<span class="c27">use</span><span class="c12">                        bhrūgjés        bhrūgjétor        bhrūgjéto        bhréwgsto</span>
 
<span class="c27">utter</span><span class="c12">                        jékes                jékti                jékt                jêkst</span>
 
<span class="c27">walk                        </span><span class="c12">câs                cHjéti                cHjét                câst</span>
 
<span class="c27">want</span><span class="c12">                        wélHes        wélHeti        wélHet        wêlHst</span>
 
<span class="c27">wash (oneself)        </span><span class="c12">léwHjes        lūjéti                lūjét                lêwHst</span>
 
<span class="c27">watch</span><span class="c12">                        spéḱes                spéḱti                spéḱt                spêḱst</span>
 
<span class="c27">wear</span><span>                        usés                wés(t)or        wésto                wêsto (← </span><span class="c20">wḗs-s-to</span><span class="c12">)</span>
 
<span class="c27">write</span><span class="c12">                        gérbhes        gr̥bhéti        gr̥bhét                gêrbhst</span>
 
<span class="c27">be working                </span><span>wérǵjes        wr̥ǵjéti                wr̥ǵjét                ⸻</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.jiwclxfltd5w"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">B.2                        Nouns</span> ==
 
<span class="c141">noun                        nom. sg.        gen. sg.        nom. pl.        gen. pl.</span>
 
<span class="c27">baker </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                bhōgós        bhōgósjo        bhōgôs        bhōgôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">book </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                gérbhs        gr̥bhés        gérbhes        gr̥bhôm</span>
 
<span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                        lubhrós        lubhrósjo        lubhrôs        lubhrôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">bread </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c27">                </span><span>bhôgos        bhôgosjo        bhôgōs        bhôgōm</span>
 
<span class="c12">dhonâ                dhonâs        dhonâs        dhonâōm</span>
 
<span class="c27">brother </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c27">                </span><span class="c12">bhrâtēr        bhrâtr̥s        bhrâteres        bhrâtrōm</span>
 
<span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                        〃                bhr̥Htrés        〃                bhr̥Htrôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">coin </span><span class="c20 c27">f.</span><span class="c27">                        </span><span class="c12">mónētā        mónētās        mónētās        mónētāōm</span>
 
<span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                        nómos                nómosjo        nómōs                nómōm</span>
 
<span class="c27">earth </span><span class="c20 c27">f.</span><span class="c27">                </span><span class="c12">dhéǵhōm        (dh)ǵhmés        ⸻                ⸻</span>
 
<span class="c27">father </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                pHtêr                pHtrés                pHtéres        pHtrôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">fish </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                péjsks                piskés                péjskes        piskôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">friend </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                dhrowghós        dhrowghósjo        dhrowghôs        dhrowghôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">friend, close </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">        bhílos                bhílosjo        bhílôs                bhílōm</span>
 
<span class="c27">grain </span><span class="c20 c27">n.</span><span class="c12">                ǵr̥Hnóm        ǵr̥Hnósjo        ǵr̥Hnâ                ǵr̥nôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">house </span><span class="c20 c27">f.</span><span class="c12">                dôm                déms                dómes                démōm</span>
 
<span class="c27">money </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c12">                pḱunós        pḱunósjo        pḱunôs        pḱunôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">mother </span><span class="c20 c27">f.</span><span class="c12">                mâtēr                mâtr̥s                mâteres        mâtrōm</span>
 
<span class="c20 c27">f.</span><span class="c12">                        〃                m̥Htrés        〃                m̥Htrôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">nose </span><span class="c20 c27">f.</span><span class="c12">                nâs                n̥Hsés                nâses                n̥Hsôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">person </span><span class="c20 c27">m.</span><span class="c27">                </span><span class="c12">ǵhmô                ǵhm̥nés        ǵhmónes        ǵhm̥nôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">salt</span><span class="c20 c27"> f.</span><span class="c27">                        </span><span>sâls                sHlés                </span><span class="c24 c20">sâles                sHlôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">sister </span><span class="c20 c27">f.</span><span class="c12">                swésōr        susrés                swésores        susrôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">story (account) </span><span class="c20 c27">n.</span><span class="c27">         </span><span class="c12">wéjdtōrmn̥        widtōrméns        wéjdtōrmō        widtōrm̥nés</span>
 
<span class="c27">story (tale) </span><span class="c20 c27">n.</span><span class="c27">        </span><span>câdhlom        câdhlosjo        câdhlā                câdhlōm</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.hozydywcgev0"></span>
== <span class="c41 c16">B.3                        Adjectives</span> ==
 
<span class="c141">adjective                nom. sg.        gen. sg.        nom. pl.        gen. pl.</span>
 
<span class="c27">dark                        </span><span class="c12">dhuskós        dhuskósjo        dhuskôs        dhuskôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">red</span><span class="c12">                        Hrowdhós        Hrowdhósjo        Hrowdhôs        Hrowdhôm</span>
 
<span class="c12">                        Hrudhrós        Hrudhrósjo        Hrudhrôs        Hrudhrôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">tall (of people)        </span><span class="c12">stHrós                stHrósjo        stHrôs                stHrôm</span>
 
<span class="c27">thin</span><span>                        mHḱrós        mHḱrósjo        mHḱrôs        mHḱrôm</span>
 
 
-----
 
<span id="h.dwx5sc42btm2"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">C                        Common phrases</span> =
 
 
-----
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<span id="h.usdy6qrwq0wk"></span>
= <span class="c89 c109">D                        Full alphabet and alternative scripts</span> =
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32"></span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">Latin</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c32">Greek</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c32">Cyrillic</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c32">Armenian</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c32">Devanagari</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/a/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">a</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">α</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">а</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ա</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">अ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/aː/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">ā</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">­ᾱ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">а̄</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ա̄</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">आ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/e/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">e</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ε</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">е</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ե</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ए</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/eː/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">ē</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">η</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">е̄</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">է</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ऐ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/i/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">i</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ι</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">и</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ի</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">इ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/iː/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">ī</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ῑ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ӣ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ի̄</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ई </span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/o/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">o</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ο</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">о</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">օ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ओ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/oː/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">ō</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ω</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">о̄, ѡ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ո</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">औ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/u/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">u</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ου</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">у</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ու</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">उ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/uː/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">ū</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">οῡ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ӯ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ու̄</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ऊ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/ə/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">ǝ, y</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ə, υ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ә, ы</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ը</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ः</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/p/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">p</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">π</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">п</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">պ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">प</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/b/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">b</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">β</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">б</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">բ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ब</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/bʰ/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">bh</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">φ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">пһ, бһ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">փ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33"> फ, भ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/k/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">k</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">κ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">к</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">կ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">क</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/g/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">g</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">γ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">г</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">գ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ग</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/gʰ/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">gh</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">χ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">кһ, гһ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ք</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">ख, घ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/t/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">t</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">τ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">т</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">տ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">त</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/d/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">d</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">δ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">д</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">դ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">द</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c57"| <span class="c32">/dʰ/</span>
 
| class="c57"| <span class="c33">dh</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">θ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">тһ, дһ, ԁ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33">թ</span>
 
| class="c47"| <span class="c33"> थ, ध</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
{| class="wikitable c11"
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32"></span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c32">L</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c32">G</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c32">C</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c32">A</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c32">D</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/kʲ/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">ḱ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">κ́</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">кь, ќ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ծ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">च</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/gʲ/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">ǵ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">γ́</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">гь, ѓ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ձ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">ज</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/gʲʰ/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">ǵh</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">χ́</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">кьһ, ќһ, гьһ, ѓһ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ց</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">छ, झ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/kʷ/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">q</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">κϝ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ӄ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ճ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">क्व</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/gʷ/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">c</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">γϝ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ҕ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ջ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">ग्व</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/gʷʰ/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">ch</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">χϝ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ҟ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">չ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">ख्व, घ्व</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/l/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">l</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">λ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">л</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">լ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">ल</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/l̩/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">l̥</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">λ̱</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">лъ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">լ̄</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">ऌ, ॡ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/m/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">m</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">μ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">м</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">մ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">म</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/m̩/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">m̥</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">μ̄</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">мъ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">մ̱</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">मं</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/n/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">n</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ν</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">н</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ն</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">न</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/n̩/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">n̥</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ν̄</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">нъ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ն̱</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">नं</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/r/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">r</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ρ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">р</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ռ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">र</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/r̩/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">r̥</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ρ̄</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ръ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">յ̄</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">ऋ, ॠ</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/j/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">j</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ϳ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ј, й</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">յ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">य</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/s/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">s</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">σς</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">с</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ս</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">स</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/w/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">w</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ϝ̄</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ԝ, ў</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">վ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">व</span>
 
|- class="c14"
| class="c13"| <span class="c32">/H/</span>
 
| class="c117"| <span class="c33">H</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ͱ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">ꚕ</span>
 
| class="c93"| <span class="c33">հ</span>
 
| class="c91"| <span class="c33">ह</span>
 
|}
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
<div>
 
<span class="c12"></span>
 
 
</div>
 
-----
 
<div>
 
[[#ftnt_ref1|[1]]]<span class="c33"> -ī is seen in Italic and Celtic </span>
 
 
</div>
<div>
 
[[#ftnt_ref2|[2]]]<span class="c33"> These forms are indeclinable.</span>
 
 
</div>
<div>
 
[[#ftnt_ref3|[3]]]<span class="c65"> Declines as </span><span class="c65 c27">-is </span><span class="c33">nouns do</span>
 
 
</div>
<div>
 
[[#ftnt_ref4|[4]]]<span class="c33"> also &quot;to know how to do something&quot; </span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref1|[a]]]<span class="c15 c127">latin; sl̥Hwêjō &quot;to be healthy, whole&quot; &lt; solHwós &quot;whole, healthy&quot;</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref2|[b]]]<span class="c15 c127">greek; ghr̥jô &lt; ghér- &quot;to rejoice&quot;</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref3|[c]]]<span class="c15 c127">sanskrit; némos~-esos &quot;bow&quot; + tój &quot;2.sg.dat clitic&quot;</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref4|[d]]]<span class="c15 c127">german through latin; ser- &quot;to bind&quot; + -wós adjectival</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref5|[e]]]<span class="c15 c127">slavic; pri- &lt; préj &quot;before&quot;, wójtos &lt; wéjt- &quot;say? agree?&quot;</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref6|[f]]]<span class="c15 c127">polish via proto-slavic; sqéj- &quot;to notice, to honour&quot; + -tis &quot;abstract ending&quot;</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref7|[g]]]<span class="c15 c127">similar to hello via germanic; kl̥Hâjō &lt; kélH- &quot;to call, to fetch, to hail&quot;</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref8|[h]]]<span class="c15 c127">internal; já &quot;onomatopoeic shout&quot; + nu &quot;now&quot;</span>
 
 
</div>
<div class="c80">
 
[[#cmnt_ref9|[i]]]<span class="c15 c127">móḱs = soon, early</span>
 
<span class="c15 c127">qomóḱs = how soon/early</span>


{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| Phone
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Latin'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Greek'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cyrillic'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Armenian'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Devanagari'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Phone'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''L'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''G'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''C'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''A'''
| style="text-align: left;"| '''D'''
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /a/
| style="text-align: center;"| a
| style="text-align: center;"| α
| style="text-align: center;"| а
| style="text-align: center;"| ա
| style="text-align: center;"| अ
| style="text-align: center;"| /kʲ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱ
| style="text-align: center;"| κ́
| style="text-align: center;"| кь, ќ
| style="text-align: center;"| ծ
| style="text-align: center;"| च
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /aː/
| style="text-align: center;"| ā
| style="text-align: center;"| ­ᾱ
| style="text-align: center;"| а̄
| style="text-align: center;"| ա̄
| style="text-align: center;"| आ
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʲ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ǵ
| style="text-align: center;"| γ́
| style="text-align: center;"| гь, ѓ
| style="text-align: center;"| ձ
| style="text-align: center;"| ज
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /e/
| style="text-align: center;"| e
| style="text-align: center;"| ε
| style="text-align: center;"| е
| style="text-align: center;"| ե
| style="text-align: center;"| ए
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʲʰ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ǵh
| style="text-align: center;"| χ́
| style="text-align: center;"| кьһ, ќһ, гьһ, ѓһ
| style="text-align: center;"| ց
| style="text-align: center;"| छ, झ
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /eː/
| style="text-align: center;"| ē
| style="text-align: center;"| η
| style="text-align: center;"| е̄
| style="text-align: center;"| է
| style="text-align: center;"| ऐ
| style="text-align: center;"| /kʷ/
| style="text-align: center;"| q
| style="text-align: center;"| κϝ
| style="text-align: center;"| ӄ
| style="text-align: center;"| ճ
| style="text-align: center;"| क्व
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /i/
| style="text-align: center;"| i
| style="text-align: center;"| ι
| style="text-align: center;"| и
| style="text-align: center;"| ի
| style="text-align: center;"| इ
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʷ/
| style="text-align: center;"| c
| style="text-align: center;"| γϝ
| style="text-align: center;"| ҕ
| style="text-align: center;"| ջ
| style="text-align: center;"| ग्व
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /iː/
| style="text-align: center;"| ī
| style="text-align: center;"| ῑ
| style="text-align: center;"| ӣ
| style="text-align: center;"| ի̄
| style="text-align: center;"| ई
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʷʰ/
| style="text-align: center;"| ch
| style="text-align: center;"| χϝ
| style="text-align: center;"| ҟ
| style="text-align: center;"| չ
| style="text-align: center;"| ख्व, घ्व
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /o/
| style="text-align: center;"| o
| style="text-align: center;"| ο
| style="text-align: center;"| о
| style="text-align: center;"| օ
| style="text-align: center;"| ओ
| style="text-align: center;"| /l/
| style="text-align: center;"| l
| style="text-align: center;"| λ
| style="text-align: center;"| л
| style="text-align: center;"| լ
| style="text-align: center;"| ल
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /oː/
| style="text-align: center;"| ō
| style="text-align: center;"| ω
| style="text-align: center;"| о̄, ѡ
| style="text-align: center;"| ո
| style="text-align: center;"| औ
| style="text-align: center;"| /l̩/
| style="text-align: center;"| l̥
| style="text-align: center;"| λ̱
| style="text-align: center;"| лъ
| style="text-align: center;"| լ̄
| style="text-align: center;"| ऌ, ॡ
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /u/
| style="text-align: center;"| u
| style="text-align: center;"| ου
| style="text-align: center;"| у
| style="text-align: center;"| ու
| style="text-align: center;"| उ
| style="text-align: center;"| /m/
| style="text-align: center;"| m
| style="text-align: center;"| μ
| style="text-align: center;"| м
| style="text-align: center;"| մ
| style="text-align: center;"| म
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /uː/
| style="text-align: center;"| ū
| style="text-align: center;"| οῡ
| style="text-align: center;"| ӯ
| style="text-align: center;"| ու̄
| style="text-align: center;"| ऊ
| style="text-align: center;"| /m̩/
| style="text-align: center;"| m̥
| style="text-align: center;"| μ̄
| style="text-align: center;"| мъ
| style="text-align: center;"| մ̱
| style="text-align: center;"| मं
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /ə/
| style="text-align: center;"| ǝ, y
| style="text-align: center;"| ə, υ
| style="text-align: center;"| ә, ы
| style="text-align: center;"| ը
| style="text-align: center;"| ः
| style="text-align: center;"| /n/
| style="text-align: center;"| n
| style="text-align: center;"| ν
| style="text-align: center;"| н
| style="text-align: center;"| ն
| style="text-align: center;"| न
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /p/
| style="text-align: center;"| p
| style="text-align: center;"| π
| style="text-align: center;"| п
| style="text-align: center;"| պ
| style="text-align: center;"| प
| style="text-align: center;"| /n̩/
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥
| style="text-align: center;"| ν̄
| style="text-align: center;"| нъ
| style="text-align: center;"| ն̱
| style="text-align: center;"| नं
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /b/
| style="text-align: center;"| b
| style="text-align: center;"| β
| style="text-align: center;"| б
| style="text-align: center;"| բ
| style="text-align: center;"| ब
| style="text-align: center;"| /r/
| style="text-align: center;"| r
| style="text-align: center;"| ρ
| style="text-align: center;"| р
| style="text-align: center;"| ռ
| style="text-align: center;"| र
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /bʰ/
| style="text-align: center;"| bh
| style="text-align: center;"| φ
| style="text-align: center;"| пһ, бһ
| style="text-align: center;"| փ
| style="text-align: center;"| फ, भ
| style="text-align: center;"| /r̩/
| style="text-align: center;"| r̥
| style="text-align: center;"| ρ̄
| style="text-align: center;"| ръ
| style="text-align: center;"| յ̄
| style="text-align: center;"| ऋ, ॠ
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /k/
| style="text-align: center;"| k
| style="text-align: center;"| κ
| style="text-align: center;"| к
| style="text-align: center;"| կ
| style="text-align: center;"| क
| style="text-align: center;"| /j/
| style="text-align: center;"| j
| style="text-align: center;"| ϳ
| style="text-align: center;"| ј, й
| style="text-align: center;"| յ
| style="text-align: center;"| य
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /g/
| style="text-align: center;"| g
| style="text-align: center;"| γ
| style="text-align: center;"| г
| style="text-align: center;"| գ
| style="text-align: center;"| ग
| style="text-align: center;"| /s/
| style="text-align: center;"| s
| style="text-align: center;"| σς
| style="text-align: center;"| с
| style="text-align: center;"| ս
| style="text-align: center;"| स
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /gʰ/
| style="text-align: center;"| gh
| style="text-align: center;"| χ
| style="text-align: center;"| кһ, гһ
| style="text-align: center;"| ք
| style="text-align: center;"| ख, घ
| style="text-align: center;"| /w/
| style="text-align: center;"| w
| style="text-align: center;"| ϝ̄
| style="text-align: center;"| ԝ, ў
| style="text-align: center;"| վ
| style="text-align: center;"| व
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /t/
| style="text-align: center;"| t
| style="text-align: center;"| τ
| style="text-align: center;"| т
| style="text-align: center;"| տ
| style="text-align: center;"| त
| style="text-align: center;"| /H/
| style="text-align: center;"| H
| style="text-align: center;"| ͱ
| style="text-align: center;"| ꚕ
| style="text-align: center;"| հ
| style="text-align: center;"| ह
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /d/
| style="text-align: center;"| d
| style="text-align: center;"| δ
| style="text-align: center;"| д
| style="text-align: center;"| դ
| style="text-align: center;"| द
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
|-
| style="text-align: left;"| /dʰ/
| style="text-align: center;"| dh
| style="text-align: center;"| θ
| style="text-align: center;"| тһ, дһ, ԁ
| style="text-align: center;"| թ
| style="text-align: center;"| थ, ध
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
| style="text-align: center;"|
|}


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<references />
Tradespin
16

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/386687"