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= 0 Introduction = | |||
'''sl̥Hwéje!''' '''ghr̥jé!''' '''némostoj!''' '''sr̥wós!''' '''priwójtos!''' '''sqéjttis!''' '''kl̥Hâjō!''' '''jánu!''' and finally, ''hello''! | |||
Thank you very much for your interest in Standard Average Indo-European. I began this project on June 10th, 2024, without the intention of taking it particularly seriously. A few months and much research later have transformed the project into something that has exceeded my expectations at every stage. So, it is with great pleasure that I present the following document for public viewing. | |||
The major principle of SAvIE is its adherence to the features of Standard Average European as set out by Martin Haspelmath (2001). This essentially projects a set of features shared by many modern Indo-European languages onto Proto-Indo-European. The result is a language which appears and sounds as though it were a proto-language, but operates with much more modern features, especially those confined to western Indo-European. | |||
Given my choice to use Proto-Indo-European as the basis for this language, I have both had to make specific choices in reconstruction based on preexisting academic work (chiefly Leiden etymological dictionaries), and ensure a wide range of vocabulary within the language in order to be representative of vocabulary in modern languages. This becomes very clear with the examples above, which are remodeled from Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and multiple Slavic and Germanic varieties, as well as examples of internally-constructed vocabulary. | |||
The result is an extraordinary and rich language with features and words that should fundamentally be instinctive or familiar to speakers of many families outlined in Haspelmath (2001). Ultimately, however, this was an artistic project above all, and has given me so much more pleasure than I ever expected. | |||
I would like to recognise the important work of Indo-Europeanists in making this project possible, and the contributions made by individuals in the ''Celtic Tearooms'' and ''IE Conlangs'' Discord servers. | |||
'''Hsubhrūgéte!''' Enjoy! | |||
--- | |||
=1 Phonology = | |||
== 1.1 Consonants == | |||
=== 1.1.1 *m, *n === | |||
These appear as ⟨m⟩ [m] and ⟨n⟩ [n]. | |||
⟨n⟩ before velar consonants can be pronounced as [ŋ]. | |||
Both consonants can be syllabic resonants, written ⟨m̥⟩ and ⟨n̥⟩ or ⟨ṃ⟩ and ⟨ṇ⟩. | |||
=== 1.1.2 *r, *l === | |||
⟨r⟩ can be pronounced as any rhotic sound, including but not limited to [ɾ], [r] and [ɹ]. | |||
⟨l⟩ is pronounced as [l]. | |||
Both consonants can be syllabic resonants, written ⟨l̥⟩ and ⟨r̥⟩ or ⟨ḷ⟩ and ⟨ṛ⟩. When ⟨r⟩ appears as the syllabic resonant ⟨r̥⟩ or ⟨ṛ⟩, it should avoid being pronounced as [ɾ], and a sonorant sound should be used instead. | |||
=== 1.1.3 *s === | |||
This appears as ⟨s⟩ [s], but following the evidence of daughter languages, it can be pronounced [z] in the cluster /sd/ or /sdʰ/, in which case it can optionally be written as ⟨z⟩ [z], such as '''nizdós''' "nest" for '''''nisdós''''' or '''sízdō''' "I am sitting" for '''''sísdō'''''. In addition to [s] it can be pronounced [s̱], [θ], or even [ɕ], [ʃ] when adjacent to the sounds ⟨y⟩ [j] or ⟨i⟩ [i]. | |||
The '''s-mobile''' is written ⟨S⟩, such as in the word '''Stégos''' "roof", and may be pronounced [s] or be entirely silent. | |||
=== 1.1.4 *j, *w === | |||
These appear as ⟨j⟩ [j] and ⟨w⟩ [w]. | |||
=== 1.1.5 Dorsals === | |||
The realisation of dorsal consonants is very complex and hotly debated by Indo-Europeanists. This document will present the traditional reconstruction of these sounds, but the reader should feel free to apply any other realisations with which they agree more, if that should be the case. | |||
==== 1.1.5.1 *k, *g, *gʰ ==== | |||
=== | |||
These appear as plain consonants, not labialised or palatalised, as ⟨k⟩ [k], ⟨g⟩ [g], and ⟨gh⟩ [gʰ]. In alternative reconstructions they may be pronounced as [q], [ɢ], and [ɢʰ] (per Kümmel); [k], [ˀk], and [kʰ] (per Beekes); and [kː], [k'], and [k] (per Kortlandt), among others. | |||
==== 1.1.5.2 *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ ==== | |||
These are palatalised consonants, and appear as ⟨ḱ⟩ [kʲ], ⟨ǵ⟩ [gʲ], and ⟨ǵh⟩ [gʲʰ]. The alternative reconstructions above have corresponding palatalised forms. | |||
==== 1.1.5.3 *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ ==== | |||
These are labialised versions of the plain velars. They appear as ⟨q⟩ [kʷ], ⟨c⟩ [gʷ], and ⟨ch⟩ [gʷʰ]. The alternative reconstructions above have corresponding labialised forms. | |||
=== 1.1.6 *t, *d, *dʰ === | |||
These appear as ⟨t⟩ [t], ⟨d⟩ [d], and ⟨dh⟩ [dʰ], or as the alternatives with pre-glottalisation, or ejectives. | |||
=== 1.1.7 *p, *b, *bʰ === | |||
These appear as ⟨p⟩ [p], ⟨b⟩ [b], and ⟨bh⟩ [bʰ], or as the alternatives with pre-glottalisation, or ejectives. | |||
=== 1.1.8 *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ === | |||
Since the pronunciation of laryngeals is so uncertain, they either colour vowels or disappear entirely. /*eh₁/ becomes [eː], /*eh₂/ becomes [aː], and /*eh₃/ becomes [oː]. Similarly, ''/*h₁e/'' becomes [e], ''/*h₂e/'' becomes [a], and ''/*h₃e/'' becomes [o]. Laryngeals do colour inherently long vowels as though they were short. | |||
When any laryngeal begins a word before another consonant, it can become [a] or [ə]. Any laryngeal between consonants can also become [a ~ ə]. | |||
An alternative and fanciful pronunciation collapses all three laryngeals into one to allow them to be pronounced, as in Anatolian and Persian languages, in addition to being deleted entirely. This can be written as ⟨H⟩ and pronounced [h], [ħ], or similar. This pronunciation must shorten long vowels. | |||
For the laryngeal which does not colour a vowel, it can also be pronounced as a syllabic consonant, and be written as ⟨H⟩ as expected, or as ⟨H̥⟩ or ⟨Ḥ⟩ to make it absolutely clear that it is a syllabic consonant. | |||
=== 1.1.9 *h₄, *hₐ, *H/*hₓ === | |||
''*h₄'' and ''*hₐ'' are not frequently included in this document as they appear only within certain analyses of Proto-Indo-European. However, if they should appear, or if speakers should choose to project words on to SAvIE using analyses where these laryngeal values are present, they should be treated exactly the same as ''*h₂'', including all the same vowel colouring of that laryngeal value. | |||
''*H'', also notated ''*hₓ'', indicates an unknown laryngeal. Often this is done because the actual value is contested, or possibly unknowable. SAvIE treats such a laryngeal as though it were ''/*h₁/''. ''/*eH/'' gives ⟨ē⟩, lengthening the vowel without colouring it, while ''/*oH/'' and ''/*uH/'' also lengthen the previous vowel giving ⟨ō⟩ and ⟨ū⟩. ''/*He/'' does not colour /e/ at all, giving ⟨He⟩. | |||
=== 1.1.10 Laryngeals at morpheme boundaries === | |||
Using the rules defined above for the levelling of Proto-Indo-European laryngeals, the same phonological processes are expected to apply to laryngeals when they could colour vowels at morpheme boundaries. For example, given the root '''céjHₒ-''' (from ''*gʷeyh₃-'') and its thematic suffix '''-eti''', the original '''-h₃-e-''' crossing a morpheme boundary colours as expected, with the resulting verb being '''céjHoti''' “he/she/it lives”. | |||
=== 1.1.11 Alteration of aspirated stops === | |||
The aspirated stops ⟨bh⟩ ⟨dh⟩ ⟨gh⟩ ⟨ǵh⟩ ⟨ch⟩ can be devoiced to [pʰ] [tʰ] [kʰ] [kʲʰ] [kʷʰ] for one of two reasons. | |||
-- | Firstly a speaker may choose to pronounce unvoiced stops in order to match a neighbouring unvoiced stop, such as producing the opposite of Bartholomae's law: *bʰewdʰ → *bʰudʰ-tós → (with application of Grassmann's law) *bʰud-dʰós → SAvIE ⟨bhuddhós⟩ [pʰuˈtʰːos]. | ||
Otherwise, a speaker (such as an avid student of Ancient Greek, or perhaps Sanskrit) can choose to pronounce unvoiced stops throughout their speech simply because they wish to match pronunciations of their respective daughter languages of interest. | |||
== 1.2 Vowels == | |||
=== 1.2.1 *e, *ē, *o, *ō === | |||
-- | The basic short vowels of Proto-Indo-European appear as ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩, and can be pronounced in a variety of ways, such as [e] and [o] or [ɛ] and [ɔ]. Their long counterparts appear as ⟨ē⟩ and ⟨ō⟩, and are pronounced as before, but audibly longer. | ||
There is no real restriction on how they should be pronounced, but my personal preference is ⟨e⟩ as [ɛ], ⟨ē⟩ as [eː], ⟨o⟩ as [ɔ], and ⟨ō⟩ as [oː]. | |||
=== 1.2.2 *a, *ā === | |||
These vowels appear as ⟨a⟩ [a] and ⟨ā⟩ [aː]. They are not basic vowels of Proto-Indo-European; ⟨a⟩ appears most often as a realisation of laryngeals between medial or before initial consonants, and ⟨ā⟩ appears as a contraction of /*eh₂/. Rarely /*a/ can appear in root words, but these reconstructions are often debated. | |||
=== 1.2.3 *i, ⟨ī⟩, *u, ⟨ū⟩ === | |||
Only ⟨i⟩ [i] and ⟨u⟩ [u] are inherited from Proto-Indo-European. ⟨ī⟩ [iː] and ⟨ū⟩ [uː] appear as contractions of /*iH/ and /*uH/. | |||
=== 1.2.4 [ə] === | |||
A final vowel [ə], the schwa, can be pronounced in SAvIE but ought not to be written. In cases where syllabic sonorants (l̥ r̥ m̥ n̥ H̥) form a cluster with another consonant (such as in the word wl̥qós which is expected to be pronounced [wl̩ˈkʷos]), an epenthetic schwa can be added before the syllabic consonant to aid in pronunciation, thus giving [wəlˈkʷos] for wl̥qós. | |||
If somebody wants to write the pronounced schwa explicitly, they should use the letters ⟨y⟩, ⟨ə⟩, or the symbol ⟨°⟩, giving ⟨wylqós⟩, ⟨wəlqós⟩, or ⟨w°lqós⟩. | |||
== 1.3 Stress == | |||
SAvIE follows Proto-Indo-European stress rules and it is mandatory to mark stress with an acute accent (á é í ó ú ĺ̥ ŕ̥ ḿ̥ ń̥ H̥́) at all times. When writing using ⟨ə⟩, that letter receives the acute instead, giving ⟨ý ~ ə́⟩. | |||
Long vowels, indicated with a macron, are instead written with a circumflex ⟨â ê î ô û⟩ when stressed. | |||
In addition, SAvIE has rules relating to the stress of compounds. These can be either ''close'' or ''loose''. Close compounds are written as one word, using a stem form of one word and a full form of another. Loose compounds are written as two separate words with the first word in the genitive case without displaying declension, and the second word being fully declinable. | |||
In close compounds, often the first element is stressed, but the second may receive stress in some words, and receives the only stress in the word. In loose compounds, the second element is stressed, and the first can optionally be written without stress marking. Often, words can be written as either type of compound, but they usually appear as only one; for example, '''ghóstipotis''' “lord” is a close compound, and can be written, following the correct conventions of stress, as a loose compound '''ghostejs pótis''', specifically avoiding stress marking on the first element. | |||
Optionally, rather than refraining from marking stress entirely, a grave accent ⟨ ̀⟩ can be used on the first word to indicate secondary stress, such as '''ghostèjs pótis'''. | |||
= 2 Major features of SAE = | |||
== 2.1 Definite and indefinite articles == | |||
The definite article is '''so'''. The indefinite article is '''Hójwos''', a variant of '''Hójnos''' "one" (from ''*h₁óynos)''. | |||
== 2.2 Relative clauses with relative pronouns == | |||
The pronoun '''jos''' can be used to introduce relative clauses, but alternatively any correlative word can be used in a relative sense. | |||
== 2.3 "Have"-perfect == | |||
SAvIE can use the word '''kápes''', a derivative of ''*kap-'' "to seize, hold" (which gives Latin ''capiō'' and English ''have''), to form a perfect tense with the participle '''-tós'''/'''-tâ'''/'''-tóm''' of a verb. | |||
== 2.4 Nominative experiencers == | |||
Instead of using dative constructions, there can either be a nominative-active-accusative or nominative-deponent-ablative use of the word '''bhrūgéti''' ''to enjoy, to like'' (from ''*bʰruHg-e-ti'') with a semantic patient. | |||
== 2.5 Participial passive == | |||
Instead of using a conjugated passive, the periphrastic passive is formed with the verb H'''ésti''' "to be" and a passive participle ending in '''-(o)mHnos'''/'''-(o)mHnā'''/'''-(o)mHnom'''. | |||
== 2.6 Anticausative prominence == | |||
Verbs can be implicitly anticausative if a transitive verb is used in anF intransitive sense, with its patient as its subject; for example '''éǵ bhrêgsm̥ íd''' "I broke it", but '''íd bhrêgst''' "it broke". Optionally the reflexive particle can be used on either side of the salient verb, giving '''íd bhrêgst s(w)é''' or '''íd s(w)é bhrêgst'''. | |||
== 2.7 Dative external possessors == | |||
The dative can be used to indicate the possessor of the object of an action instead of using a genitive phrase: '''î léwHeti ésyās sūnéwej tód ǵónu''' "she washes her son's knee", though literally "she washes ''to her son'' the knee". | |||
== 2.8 Negative pronouns and lack of negation == | |||
In phrasing e.g. "nobody comes", English-like phraseology should be used: there should be a negative pronoun with no negation of the verb, giving '''neqís cémt''' "nobody came". | |||
== 2.9 Particles in comparative constructions == | |||
Either of the particles '''Hapó''' or '''Hánti''' should be used to compare against a referent in the accusative: '''ís Hesti mājoteros Hapó/Hánti (H)mé''' "he is bigger than me". | |||
== 2.10 Relative-based equative constructions == | |||
The adjective '''sokós'''/'''sokâ'''/'''tokóm''' is used for "as" or "such" (giving '''sokós méǵHs''' "so large"). The comparative element is introduced with '''ḱom''' "with" with the predicate in the accusative, resulting in '''ís ésti sokós méǵHs ḱom îm̥''' "he is as large as her". | |||
== 2.11 Subject person affixes as strict agreement markers == | |||
This feature refers to obligatory subject-pronoun agreement with a conjugated verb. It is not widespread so it is unclear why this is included as a SAE feature. So, in SAvIE, this is an optional feature; both '''Hésmi''' and '''éǵH Hésmi''' are equivalent terms for "I am". | |||
== 2.12 Intensifier-reflexive differentiation == | |||
SAvIE distinguishes between an intensifying adjectives '''somHós'''/'''-â'''/'''-óm''' or '''sélbhos'''/'''-â'''/'''-óm''', and the true reflexive particle '''s(w)é'''; the former does not necessarily indicate reflexive action, but intensifies a previous nominal, while the latter is explicitly reflexive or reciprocal. | |||
= 3 Further SAE-aligned features = | |||
The features below appear in some members of SAE, so can be used optionally in SAvIE too. | |||
== 3.1 Verb fronting in polar interrogatives == | |||
SAvIE polar yes/no questions can front the questioning verb, so '''éǵH Hésmi''' can become '''Hésmi éǵH?''' | |||
== 3.2 Comparative marking of adjectives == | |||
As seen above in the comparative adjective '''māyóteros'''/'''-ā'''/'''-om''', the suffix '''-teros'''/'''-ā'''/'''-om''' is the comparative (as well as contrastive) adjectival suffix. | |||
== 3.3 Comitative-instrumental syncretism == | |||
In this feature there is no difference between "with" in the comitative ("in the company of") sense, and in the instrumental ("using, by means of") sense. Both of the words '''me''' and '''ḱóm''' can be used to mean "with" in either sense. | |||
= 4 Nominals = | |||
This category includes nouns and pronouns, both of which are declined in much the same way. | |||
They are declined in two numbers, the '''singular''' and '''plural'''; six cases, the '''nominative''', '''vocative''', '''accusative''', '''genitive''', '''dative''', and '''locative'''; and in one of three genders, '''masculine''', '''feminine''', or '''neuter'''. | |||
== 4.1 Personal pronouns == | |||
These decline in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons singular and plural in all cases except the locative. They also have dedicated adjectival forms, which are used for the possessive. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Nominative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Accusative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Genitive | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Dative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Locative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Adjective | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st singular''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| éǵ | |||
eǵóm | |||
éǵō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| mé | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| méne | |||
mój | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| méǵhjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| mój | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)mós | |||
/-â | |||
/-óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd singular''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tû | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| twé | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| téwe | |||
tój | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tébhi | |||
tébhjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tój | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| twós | |||
/-â | |||
/-óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular''' | |||
'''masculine''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ís | |||
éj | |||
Hé | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ím | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ésjo | |||
Héso | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ésmej | |||
Hésmōj | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (H)ésmi | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| ( | |||
swós | |||
/-â | |||
/-óm | |||
) | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular neuter''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| íd | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular feminine''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| î | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| îm̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ésjās | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)ésjāi | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)ésjā(i) | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st plural''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| wéj | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥smé | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| nos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥sméj | |||
n̥s | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥smi | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥sós | |||
/-â | |||
/-óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd plural''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jû | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| usmé | |||
wôs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| wos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| usméj | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| usmi | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| usós | |||
/-â | |||
/-óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural masculine''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| éjes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| íns | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| éjsom | |||
éjsōm | |||
Hésom | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (H)éjmos | |||
éjbhos | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (H)éjsu | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural neuter''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| î | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural feminine''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| îes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| îm̥s | |||
în̥s | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| îsōm | |||
éjsom | |||
Hésom | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| îmos | |||
(H)éjmos | |||
éjbhos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| îsu | |||
(H)éjsu | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|} | |||
In addition to the above possessive adjectives '''mós''', '''tós''', etc. alternative forms from daughter languages can be used, including '''(H)méjnos ~ -ā ~ -om''' (as in Proto-Germanic ''*mīnaz''), '''mójos ~ -ā ~ -om''' (as Proto-Slavic ''*mojь''), and '''méjos ~ -ā ~ -om''' (assuming potentially that the Latin form ''meus'' represents the dative '''méj''' with adjectival ending). Internally constructed forms include '''méwos ~ -ā ~ -om''', formed using the oblique stem with adjectival ending, or the indeclinable genitive '''(H)méne'''. | |||
== 4.2 Personal correlative and relative == | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qís | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qím | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qés(j)o | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qésmej | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qésmi | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qís | |||
qé | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. sg.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qíd | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. pl.''' | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qéjes | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qíms | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qéjsom | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qéjmos | |||
qéjbhos | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qéjsu | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. pl.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qî | |||
|} | |||
The above can be used as an independent pronoun, as in '''qís cémt?''' "Who came?" | |||
In other contexts it can be used as a relative pronoun, such as in '''kápmi Hábōl qim bhrûghō''' "I have an apple which I like". | |||
The difference between the two is that the pronoun form is stressed, but the relative form is not. | |||
== 4.3 Proximal pronoun and determiner, and article == | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| só | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tóm | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tósjo | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tósmej | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tósmi | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. sg.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tód | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| sā | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tâm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tósjās | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tósjāj | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tósjā | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tój | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tóms | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tójsōm | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tójmos | |||
tójbhos | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tójsu | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. pl.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| tâ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tâs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tâm̥s | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tâsōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tâmos | |||
tâbhos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tâsu | |||
|} | |||
The above are used as both determiners for other nouns; when in need of a pronoun the form '''ḱíd''' is used instead: '''ḱíd Hésti Hwésu''' "this is good", and '''só Hnêr Hésti Hwésus''' "this man is good". '''só''' can also be used as an article, and so the latter sentence can be translated as "''the'' man is good". | |||
== 4.4 Distal pronoun and determiner == | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénos | |||
Hónos | |||
Hnós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénom | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjo | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénosmej | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénosmi | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. sg.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénod | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénā | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénām | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjās | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjāej | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjā | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénoj | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénoms | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénojsōm | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénojmos | |||
/-bhos | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénojsu | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''neut. pl.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| Hénā | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''fem. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénās | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénām̥s | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāsōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāmos | |||
/-bhos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāsu | |||
|} | |||
There are multiple forms given in the first cell because the root can be reconstructed in each of those forms, all of which can be used as the basis for this demonstrative. | |||
As with '''so''', '''Hénos''' is used as a determiner, with its independent pronominal form being '''ḱênos''': '''ḱênod Hésti Hwésu''' "that is good", and '''Hénos Hnêr Hésti Hwésus''' "that man is good". | |||
== 4.5 Nouns and noun declension == | |||
Proto-Indo-European had somewhat complex noun declensions, which are carried over to SAvIE. As with pronouns, common nouns decline in the singular and plural, but also in the vocative to give six cases. | |||
The pattern which is seen in many noun declensions is given below. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Athematic | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -s ~ -∅ | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| -∅ | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -es | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| *-h₂ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Vocative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -∅ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -m̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -m̥s | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -s ~ -(e/o)s | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ej | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -bhos | |||
-mos | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -i, -∅ | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -su | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Thematic | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masculine pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neuter pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -os | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| -om | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōs | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| -ā | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Vocative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -e | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -om | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -oms | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -osjo | |||
< | -ī<ref>-ī is seen in Italic and Celtic</ref> | ||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ōj (← -oej) | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -o(j)bhos | |||
-o(j)mos | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -oj ~ -ej | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ojsu | |||
|} | |||
This only applies to masculine and neuter nouns, as noted in the tables above. Feminine nouns usually conform to the following: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
== | |- | ||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| Thematic | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''-ā type''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''-ī type''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Feminine pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ā | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -ās (← -āes) | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ī | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-īs (← -īes) | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Vocative''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Accusative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ām | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ām̥s | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-īm̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-īm̥s | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ās | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -āōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâōm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Dative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -āj (← -āej) | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ābhos | |||
-āmos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâj (← -jâej) | |||
|- | | style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâbhos | ||
| | |||
(∅)-jâmos | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Locative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ā(i) | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -āsu | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâ(i) | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jâsu | |||
|} | |||
ī-type nouns retain a fixed stress-ablaut pattern, whereas ā-type nouns are much more flexible; these can be o-grade with stress on the ending, e-grade with shifting stress, or zero-grade with stress on the ending. | |||
Many noun declensions are a variation on the above patterns. Some common variations are as follows. | |||
=== 4.5.1 -mn̥, -mō, -mên === | |||
These endings all look very similar to each other, and fulfil relatively similar functions. '''-mn̥''' creates neuter result nouns, while '''-mō''' and '''-mên''' create masculine agent nouns. There is no appreciable difference in meaning between '''-mō''' and '''-mên'''; they are both included to use freely when they appear in cognates among daughter languages. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-mn̥''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-mō''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-mên''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mn̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mên | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-méns | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-m̥nés | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mones | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ménes | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-m̥nés | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-m̥nôm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.2 -tōr, -têr, -trī === | |||
These endings derived masculine, masculine, and feminine agent noun endings. | |||
|- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-tōr''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-têr''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-trī''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tōr | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-têr | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trī | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-trés | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tr̥jâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tores | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téres | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trīs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-trôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tr̥jâōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.3 -trom, -tlom, -dhrom, -dhlom === | |||
This is a variation of 4.5.2, all of which produce neuter nouns of tools or instruments. There is no difference between forms with '''-r-''' and forms with '''-l-'''; however, the forms beginning '''-dh-''' are used after roots ending in a laryngeal, whether deleted or not, and '''-t-''' is used otherwise. They are all conjugated in the exact same way, so only the conjugation for '''-trom''' is given below. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-trom''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trom | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trosyo | |||
(é)-trī | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trā | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-trōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.4 -ō, -Hₒō === | |||
These are called ''nasal'' suffixes, because in each case but the nominative, ⟨n⟩ appears in the suffix. '''-ō''' creates masculine ''participant'' nouns; these are ones which indicate a person or thing which does something, or exists as the result of an action, such as '''skérō''' "meat" from ''*(s)kér-'' "to cut", with the resulting meaning being "something cut". A derivative of those, '''-Honos / -ā / -om''', is used to create augmentative nouns. | |||
-Hō is similar; it produces nouns and adjectives of all genders to create words which indicate possession of a certain quality, or a responsibility for carrying out or responsibility to carry out a certain action, like '''pl̥tHús''' "wide, broad" becoming '''Pĺ̥tHō''' "Plato", originally meaning "wide/broad one". It is assumed to be formed from Proto-Indo-European ''*-h₃en(h₂)-'', and colours vowels accordingly (by -h₃-). | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''ō masculine''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hₒō masculine''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hₒō neuter''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hₒō feminine''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-ō''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-Hₒō''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-Hₒon''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-Hₒónī''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hon | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hónī | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-nés | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hnés | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Honjâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ones | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hones | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ( ́)-Hō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hónīs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-nôm | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hnôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Hn̥jâōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.5 -r̥, -mr̥, -sr̥, -tr̥, -wr̥ === | |||
These all belong to and are declined exactly as the basic ending '''-r̥''', which is rare and unproductive. It produces very few basic neuter nouns. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-r̥''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-r̥ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-n̥s | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-r̥H | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-nōm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative coll.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ōr | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive coll.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-nés | |||
|} | |} | ||
This ending is exceptional in having a collective number, which is grammatically plural. So, '''tâ wédōr''' means “the collective of all waters”, whereas '''tâ wódr̥H''' means “the (particular, definite, definable, countable) waters”. | |||
=== 4.5.6 -tus === | |||
This suffix produces masculine action nouns from verb roots. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-tus''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tus | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téws | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tewes | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téwōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.7 -is, -tis === | |||
== | |||
'''-is''' produces ''common gender'' nouns, that is, those which can be either masculine or feminine. It is not shown with an ablaut pattern because it can be used with multiple, including '''(é)-is''' or '''(ó)-is'''. It also has the neuter form '''-i'''. '''-tis''' produces exclusively feminine action or abstract nouns. | |||
{| class="wikitable | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-is''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-tis''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -is, -i | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tis | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ejs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téjs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ejes, -ejH | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tejes | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ejōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-téjōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.8 Agentive and resultative -os === | |||
Nouns with the pattern (o)-ós create masculine agent nouns denoting someone or something which performs a related action, such as '''tomHós''' "cutter, slicer", from the verb '''tm̥nês''' (← ''tm̥-né-h₁-es'') "to slice, to section, to cut up". When the stress shifts on to the root vowel, this produces a related result noun, '''tómHos''' "a cut, a slice". Both of these noun patterns do not shift stress or ablaut within their own paradigm (giving '''tomHósjo''' "of a/the cutter" and '''tómHosjo''' "of a/the slice"). | |||
=== 4.5.9 -snā === | |||
The ending '''-snā''' is attached usually to verb stems to indicate either a result noun or a noun indicating the a summary of a category, for example converting '''tétḱes''' "to create, produce" into '''tétḱsnā''' "art, craft". | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-snā''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snā | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snās | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snās | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-snāōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.10 -sōr === | |||
'''-sōr''' is similar to '''-trī''' in that it produces feminine gender agentive nouns. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''-sōr''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sōr | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-srés | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sores | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-srôm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.5.11 -(n)â === | |||
The pattern '''(o)-â''' creates collective or mass nouns, or abstract or action nouns. This conjugates exactly as the thematic ''ā''-type is expected to. This can also appear as '''(∅)-â''', with the exact same meaning. | |||
A slight extension of this is the pattern '''(o)-nâ''' also creating a deverbal abstract noun. | |||
=== 4.5.12 -iā === | |||
This is a variation of the feminine ending -ā augmented with -i-, used to create feminine abstract nouns. | |||
=== 4.5.A Combination of suffixes === | |||
Evidence suggests that some of the above suffixes were combined for various purposes. One example is 4.5.7 with 4.5.4: where '''-tis''' could be combined with '''-Hō''' to give '''-tīō''', giving Latin ''-tiō'' and Proto-Celtic ''-tiyū''; '''-tīō''' for example can be used to produce nouns of action or result. | |||
== 4.6 Adjectives == | |||
Adjectives decline in all three genders, two numbers, and six cases. Their deeclensions follow many of the same patterns that nouns do. In particular, they follow athematic ('''méǵHs ~ m̥ǵHés''', '''méǵHī ~ méǵHīs''', '''méǵH ~ méǵH''' "great, large") or thematic ('''néwos ~ néwes''', '''néwā ~ néwās''', '''néwom ~ néwā''' "new") paradigms using a mixture of the basic masculine-, feminine- and neuter-gender endings given above. | |||
Other adjectival formations are as follows. | |||
=== 4.6.1 Caland system: -onts, -us === | |||
The Caland system defines reproducible adjectival paradigms and their root forms for creating basic adjectives. Two common endings are -onts and -us, which ablaut as follows. | |||
|- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-onts''' | |||
'''Nominative''' | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onts | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ont | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntī | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ontes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ontH | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntīs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-onts''' | |||
'''Genitive''' | |||
| | | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tés | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tjâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tjâōm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-us''' | |||
'''Nominative''' | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (é)-us | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-u | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwī | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ewes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ū | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwīs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-us''' | |||
'''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éws | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ujâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ujâōm | |||
|} | |} | ||
Although displaying somewhat idiosyncratic ablaut, these declensions are identical to the athematic endings given in '''4.5'''. | |||
=== 4.6.2 ''Bahuvrihis'': -ēs === | |||
-- | A ''bahuvrihi'' is a compound word formation indicating possession of a certain quality, or execution of a certain action. These can either be adjectives or nouns in all genders. Its underlying form is ''*-es-s'', due to which it also follows the athematic pattern. | ||
The gendered forms are combined, giving a ''common-gender'' form. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cmn. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cmn. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-es | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eses | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esos | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.6.3 Pertinence to a quality: -wénts === | |||
-wénts creates adjectives which indicate possession of a certain noun as a quality, or pertinence to that noun as a salient description, like '''Hn̥twént''' "limited". | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wénts | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wént | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntī | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntH | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntīs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tés | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tjâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tjâōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.6.4 Characteristic or typical of: -ískos, -ānos === | |||
These suffixes are cognate with the English -ish and -(i)an, and fulfil the same function: they create adjectives meaning something that is characteristic or typical of a certain noun. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskóm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskôs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskósjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-iskâōm | |||
|} | |||
'''-ānós''' conjugates as '''-nós''' does, in '''4.6.7'''. | |||
=== 4.6.5 Possession of a thing or quality, or having undergone an action: -ātos === | |||
The stress pattern is more similar to regular nouns, with the zero or unstressed full grade throughout. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātóm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātôs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātósjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ātâōm | |||
|} | |||
Any zero-grade adjective extended with '''-ā-''' or '''-ī-''' are declined identically. | |||
=== 4.6.6 Material or consistency: -īnós === | |||
-īnos creates adjectives generally related to a material of which something is made. Stress falls on the suffix at all times, but the root does not need to be zero-grade. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnóm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnôs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -īnósjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| -īnôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -īnâōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.6.7 Zero-grade adjectives === | |||
All the adjectives of this class require a zero-grade root. They are all declined with the following pattern: | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Cós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Cóm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Côs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Cósjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Côm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Câōm | |||
|} | |||
* '''(∅)-kós''' of or pertaining to something | |||
* '''(∅)-lós''' diminutive adjective or noun | |||
* '''(∅)-nós''' capable of (a verb), tending to (verb) | |||
* '''(∅)-rós''' basic adjectives in the Caland system | |||
* '''(∅)-tós''' past participles | |||
* '''(∅)-wós''' basic adjectives from verbs | |||
* '''(∅)-jós''' (athematic) basic adjectives from nouns | |||
** this appears as '''(é)-jos ~ (é)-josjo''' if the noun is thematic | |||
=== 4.6.8 Contrastive adjective === | |||
The contrastive adjective produces the slightly complex meaning of "something which is X rather than anything else". | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-teros | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terom | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terā | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terōs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terā | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terās | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terosjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terās | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-terāōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.6.9 Elative adjective === | |||
The elative adjectives is one which describes the greatness of something, meaning "very X". | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-jōs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-jos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jésī | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-joses | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-jōs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-jésīs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isés | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isjā́s | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-isjâōm | |||
|} | |||
=== 4.6.10 Verbal participles === | |||
These essentially function as adjectives. They use several special forms of the adjective endings listed above in limited functions. | |||
==== 4.6.10.1 Present participle ==== | |||
The present participle uses the form '''(é)-onts ~ (∅)-n̥tés''' in thematic verbs, as does the '''-onts''' form in the Caland system above, and '''(∅)-ónts ~ (∅)-n̥tés''' in athematic verbs. It is directly equivalent to the English "-ing". It is used with '''Héses''' in any tense to indicate continuous tenses, such as '''Hésmi Hdónts''' "I am eating". | |||
==== 4.6.10.2 Past participle ==== | |||
The past participle uses the form '''(∅)-tós ~ (∅)-tósjo'''. As a verbal adjective it essentially means "X-ed". Although it can be used as an independent adjective, it is perhaps most commonly used in its neuter form with '''kápes''' "to have, get" in the perfect-tense construction, such as '''kápmi Hdtóm''' "I have eaten". | |||
==== 4.6.10.3 Passive participle ==== | |||
Unlike '''-tós''', which is active in meaning, the passive participle indicates something which "has been X-ed". Its form is '''(é)-om(H)nos ~ (∅)-óm(H)nosjo''' in thematic verbs, an '''(∅)-m̥(H)nós ~ (∅)-m̥(H)nósjo''' in athematic verbs. It is also used with '''Héses''' to construct passive verb forms, such as '''Hésmi Hdm̥Hnós''' "I am eaten, I have been eaten". | |||
==== 4.6.10.4 Stative-type past participle ==== | |||
== | |||
This participle is a special type with optional initial reduplication: masculine '''(é)-(∅)-wōs ~ (é)-(∅)-usos''', feminine '''(é)-(∅)-usī ~ (e)-(∅)-usjâs''', neuter '''(é)-(∅)-wos ~ (é)-(∅)-usos'''. | |||
==== 4.6.10.5 Perfect participle ==== | |||
Although Ancient Greek and Sanskrit had a perfect participle, such a formation would be against the spirit of SAE, which specifies a perfect-tense formation using the "have" verb. As such, there is no dedicated perfect participle; rather, a perfect participial formation involves the present participle of '''kápes''' and a past participle of another verb, such as '''kapónts wl̥tóm''' "having seen". | |||
== 4.7 Adjective comparison == | |||
Adjectives can be further declined in two degrees: the comparative and the superlative. The comparative produces adjectives meaning "more X", while the superlative produces "the most X". | |||
=== 4.7.1 Comparative adjective === | |||
The comparative adjective degree can be expressed either with the contrastive '''-teros''' or elative '''-yōs''' ending. The comparative element translating to "than" is expressed with '''Hánti''' "against", and the noun being compared against is placed in the dative, for example '''ís Hésti Hl̥tóteros ~ Hl̥tójōs Hánti méǵhjo''' "he is taller than me". | |||
=== 4.7.2 Superlative adjective === | |||
The superlative degree expresses "the most X". As such, it is always used with the article '''só'''. | |||
For ease, I have opted to reduce the potential superlative adjective endings to two, discounting those reconstructions with a laryngeal. The adjective is formed in one of two ways: '''(∅)-otm̥mós''' or '''(∅)-istós'''. The former is used for thematic adjectives, whereas the latter is used for athematic adjectives. | |||
|- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥móm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥môs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mósjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥môm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-otm̥mâōm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istóm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istôs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istósjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istôm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istâōm | |||
|} | |||
Although this table describes each form as using a zero-grade root because the stress shifts to the ending, the root can also be made e-grade in all cases. | |||
=== 4.7.3 Absolute superlative adjective === | |||
The superlative can be augmented further, in order to create the absolute superlative, which holds even more force than the superlative. It is a combination of both superlative adjective forms, giving '''(∅)-istm̥mós'''. It declines exactly as '''-otm̥mós''' does. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Masc. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Neut. pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Fem. pl.''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥móm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥môs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâs | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mósjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâs | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥môm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-istm̥mâōm | |||
|} | |||
= 5 Verbs = | |||
SAvIE verbs are complex, but with fewer irregularities than Proto-Indo-European's daughter languages. SAvIE in particular takes the feature of the "have"-perfect tense and expands the concept to include multiple periphrastic tenses and verb forms, including all continuous tenses, and all passive forms. | |||
SAvIE verbs are divided into two kinds: ''conjugated'' and ''periphrastic''. Conjugated forms are ones to which a suffix is attached to form a directly usable tense. Periphrastic forms involve a conjugated form of one of a limited selection of verbs, along with a ''particle''. Particles themselves are one of four non-finite forms which indicate tense and aspect. | |||
== 5.1 Non-finite forms, and infinitive == | |||
It should not be necessary to revise non-finite forms, as they are all described in '''4.6.8'''. Two forms not described there are the ''infinitive'', which is used simply to name the verb, the ''supine'', used only in special verb constructions, and the ''purportative'', used with verbs of wanting, owing, or intending. | |||
The infinitive takes the form '''(é)-es''', and is a shortened locative form of the purportative '''(é)-os''' and '''(é)-esos''', which creates result or action nouns. This makes it cognate with the Ancient Greek (-ειν) and Latin (-ere) infinitives. | |||
For deponents, the infinitive is formed with '''(∅)-és''', and the purportatives '''(é)-osm̥''' and '''(∅)-sés'''. | |||
The supine takes the form '''(∅)-ént''', also a locative form, of the present participle '''-onts'''. For deponents, it is '''(∅)-tój'''. It is used in combination with verbs of motion in order to indicate purpose, such as '''ís cémt Had wl̥ént mé''' "he came to see me". | |||
== 5.2 Conjugated forms == | |||
Verbs each conjugate in multiple tenses, each of which has three persons (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), two numbers (singular and plural) and two moods (indicative and optative). In total there are four tenses: the ''nonpast'' (which encompasses the present and, optionally, future), the ''imperfect'' (semantically identical to the past continuous, but used especially in certain constructions), the ''aorist'' (or ''preterite'', or ''simple past''), and the ''habitual'' (which is technically tenseless). | |||
All conjugated forms use one of two sets of endings, called the ''primary'' and ''secondary''. Primary endings indicate the nonpast tense, and secondary endings most others. Each set of endings can be either ''thematic'' or ''athematic''. | |||
|- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''Primary''' | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"| '''Secondary''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Thematic''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Athematic''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Thematic''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Athematic''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st person singular''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -mi | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -om | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -m̥ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd person singular''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -esi | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -si | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -es | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -s | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd person singular''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -eti | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ti | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -et | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -t | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1st person plural''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -omos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -mós | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ome | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -mé | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2nd person plural''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ete | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -té | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ete | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -té | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd person plural''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -onti | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -énti | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ont | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -ént | |||
|} | |||
Whether a verb is thematic or not is unpredictable, and must be learnt on a case-by-case basis. | |||
=== 5.2.1 Nonpast === | |||
The nonpast combines both the present and future tenses. The simple future has an additional periphrastic tense, but the simple present does not. It is indicated by the primary endings. | |||
The first model is of '''bhéres''' "to bear, carry". It is a root thematic verb. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Thematic nonpast verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō | |||
| '''bhérō''' ''I bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi | |||
| '''bhéresi''' ''you bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti | |||
| '''bhéreti''' ''he/she/it bears'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos | |||
| '''bhéromos''' ''we bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete | |||
| '''bhérete''' ''you (pl.) bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti | |||
| '''bhéronti''' ''they bear'' | |||
|} | |||
This model is '''Hédes''' "to eat". It is a root athematic verb. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Athematic nonpast verb | |||
| '''Model''' | |||
| '''Example''' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-mi | |||
| '''Hédmi''' ''I eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-si | |||
| '''Hédsi''' ''you eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ti | |||
| '''Hédti''' ''he/she/it eats'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mós | |||
| '''Hdmós''' ''we eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-té | |||
| '''Hdté''' ''you (pl.) eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-énti | |||
| '''Hdénti''' ''they eat'' | |||
|} | |||
Since they can be used as a future tense too, a nonpast form '''bhérō''' can mean both "I bear" and "I will bear", though for clarity the latter can be expressed with the periphrastic future tense, described later. | |||
=== 5.2.2 Imperfect === | |||
The imperfect is indicated by the usage of secondary endings in place of primary ones. It signals a past continuous tense. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| Thematic imperfect verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-om | |||
| '''bhérom''' ''I was bearing'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-es | |||
| '''bhéres''' ''you were bearing'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-et | |||
| '''bhéret''' ''he/she/it was bearing'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ome | |||
| '''bhérome''' ''we were bearing'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete | |||
| '''bhérete''' ''you (pl.) were bearing'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti | |||
| '''bhéronti''' ''they were bearing'' | |||
|} | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Athematic imperfect verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-m̥ | |||
| '''Hédm̥''' ''I was eating'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-s | |||
| '''Héds''' ''you were eating'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-t | |||
| '''Hédt''' ''he/she/it was eating'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mé | |||
| '''Hdmé''' ''we were eating'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-té | |||
| '''Hdté''' ''you (pl.) were eating'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-énti | |||
| '''Hdénti''' ''they were eating'' | |||
|} | |||
The main difference of the imperfect conjugated form from the past continuous periphrastic form is the usage in formulaic constructions, shown later. | |||
=== 5.2.3 Aorist === | |||
The aorist forms a simple past. It also uses the secondary endings, but can be one of two further formations. The '''derived aorist''' is given for '''root present''' verbs, that is, ones which are not formed with secondary derivation such as the nasal infix. This forms as below. | |||
| | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| Aorist verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sm̥ | |||
| '''bhêrsm̥''' ''I bore'' | |||
'''Hêdsm̥''' ''I ate'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-s | |||
| '''bhêrs''' ''you bore'' | |||
'''Hêds''' ''you ate'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-st | |||
| '''bhêrst''' ''he/she/it bore'' | |||
'''Hêdst''' ''he/she/it ate'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sme | |||
| '''bhérsme''' ''we bore'' | |||
'''Hédsme''' ''we ate'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ste | |||
| '''bhérste''' ''you (pl.) bore'' | |||
'''Hédste''' ''you (pl.) ate'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sn̥t | |||
| '''bhérsn̥t''' ''they bore'' | |||
'''Hédsn̥t''' ''they ate'' | |||
| | |} | ||
The second formation is the '''root aorist''', given for '''derived verbs''' that do not fit into the above category. It uses the secondary endings attached to a root with no intervening secondary derivations, and can be either thematic or athematic. As such, it is completely identical with the imperfect tense of root present verbs. It differs from the imperfect of derived verbs by dropping secondary derivation. For example, for '''léjqes''' "to leave" has the (derived) present '''linéqti''', (derived) imperfect '''linéqt''', and root aorist '''léjqt'''. | |||
=== 5.2.4 Habitual === | |||
The habitual has no explicit tense – the position in time of the relevant action depends solely on the context of the sentence. The form of this is a thematic verb with secondary endings. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Dynamic habitual verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-óm | |||
| '''Hdóm''' ''I used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-és | |||
| '''Hdés''' ''you used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ét | |||
| '''Hdét''' ''he/she/it used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-óme | |||
| '''Hdóme''' ''we used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éte | |||
| '''Hdéte''' ''you used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ónt | |||
| '''Hdónt''' ''they used to eat'' | |||
|} | |||
=== 5.2.5 Stative-type present === | |||
For very few verbs the present is formed using the Proto-Indo-European stative formation. These have no imperfect or aorist, and have special past participle forms built on '''-wōs ~ -usī ~ -wos'''. | |||
|- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| Stative habitual verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-Ha | |||
| '''móghHa''' ''I can'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-tHa | |||
| '''móghtHa''' ''you can'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ó)-e | |||
| '''móghe''' ''he/she/it knows'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mé | |||
| '''m̥ghmé''' ''we can'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-é | |||
| '''m̥ghé''' ''you (pl.) know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êr | |||
| '''m̥ghêr''' ''they know'' | |||
|} | |||
=== 5.2.6 Deponent === | |||
A very small number of verbs is a deponent: one which looks like an old mediopassive form, but acts as though it were active. This is not counted as a passive form. Deponent verbs have special forms in all tenses. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Deponent verbs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Nonpast | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Imperfect | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Aorist | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Habitual | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| <sup>athematic</sup>(∅)-Hár | |||
<sup>thematic</sup>(é)-ōr | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-Há | ||
| | |||
(é)-ōa | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sHa | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôr | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tHár | |||
(é)-etHar | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-tHá | ||
(é)-etHa | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (é)-stHa | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-étHar | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-(t)ór | |||
(é)-etor | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-(t)ó | |||
(é)-eto | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (é)-s(t)o | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-étor | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-mósdhH | |||
(é)-omosdhH | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-médhH | ||
| | |||
(é)-omedhH | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (é)-smedhH | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ómosdhH | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-dhHwé | |||
(é)-edhHwe | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-dhHwé | ||
(é)-edhHwe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sdhHwe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-édhHwe | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-rór ~ (∅)-ntór | |||
(é)-oror ~ (é)-ontor | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ró ~ (∅)-ntó | |||
(é)-oro ~ (é)-ento | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-sro ~ -sn̥to | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-óror ~ (∅)-óntor | |||
|} | |||
=== 5.2.7 Imperative === | |||
The imperative is its own mood, and conjugates only in the second and third person. It is tenseless, so there is only one set of imperative forms for each verb. Their forms differ only slightly based on thematicity. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Thematic imperative | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-e | |||
| '''bhére''' ''bear!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-etu | |||
| '''bhéretu''' ''let him/her/it bear!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete | |||
| '''bhérete''' ''bear (pl.)!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ontu | |||
| '''bhérontu''' ''let them bear!'' | |||
|} | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Athematic imperative | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-∅ | |||
(∅)-dhí | |||
| | | '''Héd''' | ||
'''Hddhí''' ''eat!'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-tu | |||
| '''Hédtu''' ''let him/her/it eat!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-té | |||
| '''Hdté''' ''eat (pl.)!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntu | |||
| '''Hdéntu''' ''let them eat!'' | |||
|} | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Stative-type imperative | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(ó)-∅ | |||
(e)-(∅)-dhí | |||
| | | '''memón''' ''remember!'' | ||
'''memn̥dhí''' ''remember!'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 3rd person singular | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(ó)-tu | |||
| '''memóntu''' ''let him/her/it remember!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(∅)-té | |||
| '''memn̥té''' ''remember (pl.)!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (e)-(∅)-éntu | |||
| '''memnéntu''' ''let them remember!'' | |||
|} | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Deponent imperative | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-o | |||
| '''wéso!''' ''wear (it)!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-(e)to | |||
| '''wésto!''' ''let him/her/it wear!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-(e)dh(H)we | |||
| '''wésdh(H)we!''' ''wear (pl.) (it)!'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-(o)nto | |||
| '''wésn̥to!''' ''let them wear!'' | |||
|} | |||
=== 5.2.8 Special formation types === | |||
Some verb forms include affixes which attach to a verb root to form a stem, onto which certain endings are added. In this document, ''primary'' indicates verbs whose suffixes do not add significant special meaning, which form a root present and sigmatic aorist (including on suffixes '''-ê-''', '''-ā-''', etc.); ''secondary'' indicates verbs which use special derivational suffixes for the present and form a root aorist; ''tertiary'' indicates verbs which use meaningful derivational suffixes but do not form an aorist because the meaning of the derived verb contrasts the meaning of its non-derived counterpart. | |||
==== 5.2.8.1 Nasal infix (secondary) ==== | |||
There is a special form of nonpast and imperfect formed with the ''nasal infix'' '''-né- ~ -n-''' on the zero-grade stem. This infix ablauts from the singular to the plural in the indicative, remains '''-né-''' in the subjunctive, and is conjugated with athematic endings. The infix is only seen in these two tenses. | |||
- | ==== 5.2.8.2 sḱ-inchoative verbs (primary) ==== | ||
The infix '''-sḱ-''' attaches to some verb roots to form verbs which occasionally, but not always, have an inchoative meaning. These verbs are thematic. | |||
==== 5.2.8.3 -j- infix transitive-intransitive pairs (primary) ==== | |||
Some verbs can be formed with '''(é)-jeti''' or '''(∅)-jéti'''. The former will always form transitive verbs, and the latter intransitive verbs. The intransitive in particular implies an ongoing action, and as such has no aorist tense. Verb roots can be combined with each of these to produce a pair of transitive and intransitive verbs, but this need not be the case. In case it does, conjugated verb forms differ in all forms except the aorist, where both forms are identical. | |||
==== 5.2.8.4 -néw- infix verbs (tertiary) ==== | |||
As with the nasal infix, some verbs will form their present, imperfect, and habitual tenses with '''-néw-'''. This is placed after a zero-grade verb root, and is athematic in the present and imperfect. It ablauts to '''-nu-''' when unstressed, including in all persons of the habitual. | |||
==== 5.2.8.5 Causative formations (primary) ==== | |||
The verb form '''(o)-éjeti ~ (o)-éjonti''' forms causative verbs, such as '''Hédmi''' "to eat" becoming '''Hodéjeti''' "to feed". This forms verbs meaning "to cause to do X". This makes explicitly transitive verbs, often from existing verb roots or from adjective roots. | |||
==== 5.2.8.6 Desiderative formations (primary) ==== | |||
The affix '''-sj-''' is added to very few verb roots to form desiderative "want to X" verbs. It is thematic, attaches to the zero-grade root, and is accented on the thematic vowel, as '''Hdsjéti''' "to want to eat, to be hungry". | |||
==== 5.2.8.7 Adjectival stative formations (primary) ==== | |||
The suffix '''(∅)-êti ~ (∅)-ên̥ti''' (athematic) or '''(∅)-êjeti ~ (∅)-êjonti''' (thematic) form stative "to be X" verbs specifically from adjective roots, such as '''Hrudhêti''' "to be red". These verbs can expand slightly in meaning from a stative "to be X" to a dynamic "to go X, to become X". In either case they are explicitly intransitive verbs, and must be made causative to become transitive. | |||
==== 5.2.8.8 Reduplicated thematic verbs (secondary) ==== | |||
Very few verbs will form their nonpast and imperfect with '''(í)-(∅)-eti ~ (í)-(∅)-onti'''; they have a reduplicated element with '''-i-''' as the vowel which retains the stress, such as '''sísdeti''' "to sit". These have no special meaning, and are simply formations of the tense. | |||
==== 5.2.8.9 Reduplicated athematic verbs (secondary) ==== | |||
Similarlty to the above, some verbs will form with '''(í/é)-(e)-ti ~ (í/é)-(∅)-nti''', such as '''stístāti''' "to stand up". These verbs also have no particular nuance, and are formed arbitrarily. | |||
==== 5.2.8.10 Zero-grade thematic formation (primary) ==== | |||
The so-called ''tudati'' type verb forms all tenses from '''(∅)-éti ~ (∅)-ónti''', in which case its habitual and imperfect are identical. | |||
==== 5.2.8.11 Factitive (deadjectival) verbs (primary) ==== | |||
The factitive verb form '''(é)-āti ~ (é)-ān̥ti''' creates verbs that imply "to make X", such as '''néwāti''' "to renew, to make new". | |||
==== 5.2.8.12 Denominative verbs (primary) ==== | |||
Despite their similarity with the -j- infix verbs described in '''5.2.7.3''', the verb forms '''(∅)-ejéti ~ (∅)-ejónti''' and '''(∅)-ājéti ~ (∅)-ājónti''' are denominative (and occasionally deadjectival) suffixes; they are derived from (mainly) noun stems to indicate a performance of that noun. | |||
==== 5.2.8.13 Iterative/frequentative/intensive formation (primary) ==== | |||
These verbs are marked by the thematic suffix '''-ājéti ~ -ājónti''', and may appear as o-grade among others. This suffix forms verbs with iterative (repetition of an action, but only during one distinct occasion), frequentative (occasional repetition of an action on several undefined occasions), or intensive meaning. | |||
==== 5.2.8.14 -dhHéti resultative formation (primary) ==== | |||
The resultative formation '''(é)-dhHeti ~ (é)-dhHonti''' generally expresses “to become X”. As a result it is most commonly formed from adjective roots. | |||
== 5.3 Periphrastic forms == | |||
These verb forms are a combination of a conjugated form and a non-finite form: a conjugated verb and a participle. | |||
=== 5.3.1 Explicit future tense === | |||
Although the nonpast tense can be used as an implicit future, a periphrastic future can be expressed with the verb '''Héjes''' "to go", with the supine form, such as '''éǵ''' '''Héjmi Hdént''' "I am going to eat, I will eat". | |||
=== 5.3.2 Perfect tense === | |||
The perfect tense is handled by the verb '''kápes''', which is only used to form this particular tense. It carries the meaning of "have X-ed". The nonpast tense is used with the past participle, such as '''éǵ kápmi Hdtóm''' "I have eaten". | |||
If there is no direct object, the neuter form '''-tóm''' of the participle should be used. However, if there is a direct object, the past participle should match the gender of the object, such as '''íd kápti Hdtâ îm̥''' "it has eaten her". | |||
=== 5.3.3 Pluperfect tense === | |||
The pluperfect "had X-ed" can be formed by changing the conjugated from of '''kápes''' from the nonpast to the aorist, such as '''éǵ kâpsm̥ Hdtóm''' "I had eaten". The participle must also agree as in the perfect tense. | |||
=== 5.3.4 Future perfect tense === | |||
Instead of using '''kápes''', the future formation of '''Héjes''' must be used with the supine form '''kapént''' and a past participle, such as '''éǵ Héjmi kapént Hdtóm''' "I will have eaten". Once again, that the participle must agree with the object's gender is retained. | |||
=== 5.3.5 Continuous tenses === | |||
A continuous tense indicates an explicitly imperfective tense, showing that an action is underway and incomplete. | |||
Continuous tenses can be formed with the nonpast and imperfect conjugations of '''Héses''' along with a present participle, such as '''Hésmi Hdónts''' "I am eating", or '''Hésm̥ Hdónts''' "I was eating". | |||
In addition, the future tense can form a continuous: '''Héjmi Hsént Hdónts''' "I will be eating", and '''Héjmi kapént Hstóm Hdónts''' "I will have been eating". | |||
=== 5.3.6 Imperfective anterior === | |||
This construction translates as "was going to X". It can either take the imperfect or the aorist form of '''Héses''', with the present participle of '''Héjes''' and the supine. The aorist form is usually used as a simple description of events: '''bhéwHsm̥ Hjónts Hdént''' "I was going to eat". The imperfect form, on the contrary, is usually used to introduce the context before another action, with the second action being placed in the aorist: '''Hésm̥ Hjónts Hdént,''' '''qomóḱs''' '''ís cémt''' "I was going to eat when he came". | |||
=== 5.3.7 Passive forms === | |||
SAvIE makes no distinction between the middle and the passive, preferring only to use a passive. This is formed with any conjugated form of '''Héses''' with the passive participle, such as '''bhéwHsm̥ Hdm̥Hnós''' "I was eaten". | |||
Periphrastic tenses can also be made passive: '''Hésm̥ Hjónts Hsént Hdm̥Hnós, qomóḱs ís cémt''' "I was going to be eaten when he came". | |||
== 5.4 Subjunctive == | |||
The subjunctive is a conjugated verb form used either to express uncertainty semantically, or to express a relative clause. | |||
=== 5.4.1 Nonpast subjunctive === | |||
The subjunctive of root thematic nonpast verbs simply lengthens the theme vowel, with '''-ō''' gaining '''-H'''; given the proto-form is ''*-ōh₂'', no change is expected, but '''-H''' is added to distinguish the subjunctive form from the indicative. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Thematic nonpast verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō | |||
| '''bhérōH''' ''(that) I bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēsi | |||
| '''bhérēsi''' ''(that) you bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēti | |||
| '''bhérēti''' ''(that) he/she/it bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ōmos | |||
| '''bhérōmos''' ''(that) we bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ēte | |||
| '''bhérēte''' ''(that) you (pl.) bear'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ōnti | |||
| '''bhérōnti''' ''(that) they bear'' | |||
|} | |||
The athematic nonpast verbs, meanwhile, are converted to thematic verbs with acrostatic stress. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| Athematic nonpast verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō | |||
| '''Hédō''' ''(that) I eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi | |||
| '''Hédesi''' ''(that) you eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti | |||
| '''Hédeti''' ''(that) he/she/it eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos | |||
| '''Hédomos''' ''(that) we eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete | |||
| '''Hédete''' ''(that) you (pl.) eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti | |||
| '''Hédonti''' ''(that) they eat'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== 5.4.2 Imperfect subjunctive === | |||
== | |||
There is no imperfect subjunctive in SAvIE; the habitual subjunctive should be used instead. | |||
=== 5.4.3 Aorist subjunctive === | |||
Since the aorist uses athematic secondary endings, the subjunctive changes these to thematic primary endings, and keeps a lengthened e-grade root with acrostatic stress. | |||
| | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| Aorist verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sō | |||
| '''bhêrsō''' ''(that) I bore'' | |||
'''Hêdsō''' ''(that) I ate'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 2nd person singular | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sesi | |||
| '''bhêrsesi''' ''(that) you bore'' | |||
'''Hêdsesi''' ''(that) you ate'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 3rd person singular | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-seti | |||
| '''bhêrseti''' ''(that) he/she/it bore'' | |||
'''Hêdseti''' ''(that) he/she/it ate'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 1st person plural | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-somos | |||
| '''bhêrsomos''' ''(that)'' ''we bore'' | |||
'''Hêdsomos''' ''(that)'' ''we ate'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 2nd person plural | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sete | |||
| '''bhêrsete''' ''(that) you (pl.) bore'' | |||
'''Hêdsete''' ''(that) you (pl.) ate'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 3rd person plural | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sonti | |||
| '''bhêrsonti''' ''(that) they bore'' | |||
'''Hêdsonti''' ''(that) they ate'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== 5.4.4 Habitual subjunctive === | |||
In the habitual subjunctive of dynamic verbs, the theme vowel is lengthened and used with primary endings, against a zero-grade root, with accent always falling on the endings as in the indicative. | |||
----- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Dynamic habitual verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôH | |||
| '''HdôH''' ''(that) I used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êsi | |||
| '''Hdêsi''' ''(that) you used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êti | |||
| '''Hdêti''' ''(that) he/she/it used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ômos | |||
| '''Hdômos''' ''(that) we used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ête | |||
| '''Hdête''' ''(that) you used to eat'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ônti | |||
| '''Hdônti''' ''(that) they used to eat'' | |||
|} | |||
The habitual subjunctive of stative verbs, by contrast, takes an e-grade root with acrostatic stress, and thematic primary endings, identical to root thematic verbs. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| Stative habitual verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō | |||
| '''wéjdō''' ''(that) I used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi | |||
| '''wéjdesi''' ''(that) you used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti | |||
| '''wéjdeti''' ''(that) he/she/it used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos | |||
| '''wéjdomos''' ''(that) we used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete | |||
| '''wéjdete''' ''(that) you (pl.) used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti | |||
| '''wéjdonti''' ''(that) they used to know'' | |||
|} | |||
=== 5.4.5 Stative-type subjunctives === | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Stative habitual verb | |||
| Model | |||
| Example | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ō | |||
| '''wéjdō''' ''(that) I used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-esi | |||
| '''wéjdesi''' ''(that) you used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-eti | |||
| '''wéjdeti''' ''(that) he/she/it used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omos | |||
| '''wéjdomos''' ''(that) we used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ete | |||
| '''wéjdete''' ''(that) you (pl.) used to know'' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-onti | |||
| '''wéjdonti''' ''(that) they used to know'' | |||
|} | |||
=== 5.4.6 Deponent subjunctives === | |||
As is the case with active verbs, there is no form for the imperfect, and the habitual must be used to cover both tenses. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| Deponent subjunctive | |||
| Nonpast | |||
| Aorist | |||
| Habitual | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| <sup>athematic</sup>(é)-ōr | |||
<sup>thematic</sup>(é)-ōHar | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sōr | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôHar | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-etHar | |||
(é)-ētHar | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-setHar | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êtHar | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd person singular | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-etor | |||
(é)-ētor | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-setor | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êtor | |||
|- | |||
| 1st person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-omosdhH | |||
(é)-ōmosdhH | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-somosdhH | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ômosdhH | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-edhHwe | |||
(é)-ēdhHwe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sedhHwe | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-êdhHwe | ||
| | |- | ||
| 3rd person plural | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-oror ~ (é)-ontor | |||
(é)-ōror ~ (é)-ōntor | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| (ê)-sontor ~ (ê)-soror | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ôror ~ (∅)-ôntor | |||
|} | |||
== 5.5 The irregular verb Héses == | |||
'''Héses''' "to be" is an irregular verb; it is suppletive in the aorist indicative and aorist and habitual subjunctive tense, where it takes from the stem '''bhū-''', from ''*bʰuH-''. It is important to note that the lengthened grade (seen in the aorist) is '''bhéwH-''', filling in an '''-e-''' by analogy, treating '''bhū-''' as the zero-grade and '''bhéwH-''' as the full-grade form. | |||
This is the complete conjugation of '''Héses'''. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| rowspan="2"| Héses | |||
"to be" | |||
|- | | colspan="4"| Indicative | ||
| | | colspan="3"| Subjunctive | ||
| rowspan="2"| Imp. | |||
|- | |||
| Nonp. | |||
| Impf. | |||
| Aor. | |||
| Hab. | |||
| Nonp. | |||
| Aor. | |||
| Hab. | |||
|- | |||
| 1st sg. | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésmi''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésm̥''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsm̥''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsóm''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésō''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsō''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūôH''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''''⸻''''' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd sg. | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hési''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hés''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHs''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsés''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésesi''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHesi''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūêsi''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsdhí''' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd sg. | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hést''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHst''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsét''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Héseti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHseti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūêti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Héstu''' | |||
|- | |||
| 1st pl. | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsmós''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsmé''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhûsme''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsóme''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésomos''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsomos''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūômos''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''''⸻''''' | |||
|- | |||
| 2nd pl. | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsté''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhûste''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hséte''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésete''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsete''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūête''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsté''' | |||
|- | |||
| 3rd pl. | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsénti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsént''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhûsn̥t''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsónt''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésonti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhéwHsonti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''bhūônti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Hséntu''' | |||
|- | |||
| Prs. p. | |||
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsónts ~ Hséntī ~ Hsóntas ~ Hsónt''' | |||
|- | |||
| Pst. p. | |||
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hstós ~ Hstâ ~ Hstás ~ Hstóm''' | |||
|- | |||
| Pass. p. | |||
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''''none''''' | |||
|- | |||
| Purp. | |||
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hésos''' | |||
|- | |||
| Supine | |||
| colspan="8" style="text-align: center;"| '''Hsént''' | |||
|} | |||
= 6 Gender-neutral paradigm = | |||
In SAvIE, there exists a newly-developed gender-neutral form which encompasses a pronoun and large selection of adjectival endings corresponding with each of the adjectives above that has explicitly gendered forms, meaning that common-gender forms are not covered by this paradigm. | |||
The basis of the gender-neutral paradigm is the sound /a/, spelt as ⟨a⟩. | |||
Its pronominal form is as follows: | |||
| | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Nominative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Accusative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Genitive | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Dative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Locative | |||
! style="text-align: left;"| Adjective | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd singular neutral''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jás | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jám | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jás | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jâj | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jaj | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ( | |||
swós | |||
/-â | |||
/-ás | |||
- | /-óm | ||
) | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3rd plural neutral''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jâs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jáms | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jáōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jámos | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| jásu | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ( | |||
swós | |||
/-â | |||
/-ás | |||
/-óm | |||
) | |||
| | |} | ||
Adjectives, consequently, all decline with '''a'''. | |||
|- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-onts → -éntas''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-us → -was''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-wénts → -wéntas''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-os → -oas → -ōs''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''-s → -as''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntas | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-was | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntas | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-as '''→''' -ōs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-as | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tás | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwas | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tás | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-as-jo '''→''' -ōsjo | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ás | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éntajes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ewajes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wéntajes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-ajes '''→''' -ōjes | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (é)-ajes | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-n̥tájōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-éwajōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-wn̥tájōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| -o-ajōm '''→''' -ōjōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (∅)-ájōm | |||
|} | |||
An example of this is '''éǵ wéjdō qid jás Hésti Hwéswas''' "I know that they (sg.) are good". | |||
= 7 Pro-forms = | |||
SAvIE pro-forms include pronouns and demonstratives, and question forms known as ''wh-words''. They are outlined in the table below. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
= | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| interr. | |||
''"what?"'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| proximal | |||
''"this"'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| medial | ||
''"that"'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| distal | ||
''"yon"'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| assertive | ||
''"some"'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| elective | ||
''"any"'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| universal | ||
''"every"'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| negative | |||
''"no(ne)"'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| alternative | |||
''"other"'' | |||
--- | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| determiner | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qós? | |||
qâ? | |||
qod? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| só | |||
sâ | |||
tod | |||
- | | style="text-align: center;"| Hénos | ||
Hénā | |||
Hénom | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nós | |||
Hl̥nâ | |||
Hl̥nóm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hojwós | |||
Hojwâ | |||
Hojwóm | |||
| | | rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| qísqe ~ | ||
ojnolós | |||
qîqe ~ | |||
ojnolâ | |||
qásqe ~ | |||
ojnolás | |||
qídqe ~ | |||
ojnolóm | |||
| | | rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| sl̥Hwós ~ | ||
-ôs | |||
sl̥Hwâ ~ | |||
-âs | |||
sl̥Hwás ~ | |||
-ájes | |||
sl̥Hwóm ~ | |||
-â | |||
''or'' | |||
wikós | |||
/ -â / -ás | |||
/ -óm | |||
| | | rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| neqós ~ | ||
neojnolós | |||
neqâ ~ | |||
neojnolâ | |||
neqás ~ | |||
neojnolás | |||
neqód ~ | |||
neojnolóm | |||
| | | rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;"| Háljos | ||
Háljā | |||
Háljas | |||
Háljom | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| human | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qís? | |||
qî? | |||
qás? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱís | |||
ḱī | |||
ḱás | |||
- | | style="text-align: center;"| ḱênos | ||
ḱênā | |||
ḱênas | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nós | |||
Hl̥nâ | |||
Hl̥nás | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| Hójwos | ||
Hójwā | |||
Hójwas | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| object | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qíd? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱíd | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱênod | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nóm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hójwom | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| dual | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qíteros? | |||
qíterā? | |||
qíteras? | |||
qíterom? | |||
''~ qó-'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| ''ḱíteros'' | ||
''etc.'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ → | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| ''Hl̥nóteros'' | |||
''etc.'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ → | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| qíterosqe | |||
''~ qó-'' | |||
''etc.'' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hm̥bhô | |||
Hm̥bhâH | |||
Hm̥bhój<ref>These forms are indeclinable.</ref> | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| neqíteros | ||
''~ qó-'' | |||
''etc.'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| Háljoteros | ||
''etc.'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| location | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| kúr? | |||
qór? | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| ḱér | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénâḱe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ísḱe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hojwâḱe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| kúrqe | |||
qórqe | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| wikómḱe | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| nekúr | |||
neqór | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| Háljāḱe | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| source | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qôdhe? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tosjāsdhe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénosjāsdhe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nâsdhe | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qôdheqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| wikâsdhe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| neqôdhe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Háljāsdhe | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| goal | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qómde? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tâmde | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hénāmde | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nâmde | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qómdeqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| wikómde | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| neqómde | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Háljāmdhe | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| time | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qódō? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| nú | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tóqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻ | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qódōqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| wídō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| neqódō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| amount | |||
quantity | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| qótjos? | ||
| | |||
qîonts? | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| tótjos | ||
tâonts | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻ | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻ | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qótjosqe | |||
qîontsqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| number | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qóti? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tóti | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ← ⸻ | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qótiqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| manner | |||
''(instr.)'' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qéj? | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tónō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ → | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nô | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qéjqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| reason | |||
''(abl.)'' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qô? | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| tósmōd | ||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ → | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hl̥nôd | |||
| | | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| qôqe | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
|} | |||
These forms will be explained below. | |||
== 7.1 Determiner and pronoun == | |||
There are differences between determiner forms and pronoun forms. Determiner forms are bound morphemes, and can only be used in conjunction with a nominal. So, '''qós?''' cannot be used independently, but must always be used as '''qós ǵhmô?''' "which person?". | |||
Similarly, the pronoun form can only be used independently, and not to qualify a nominal, such as '''qís cémt?''' "who came?". | |||
In addition, the dual forms '''qóteros?''' and '''qíteros?''' also display this distinction: '''qóteros ǵhmô cémt?''' "which of the two people came?" as opposed to '''qíteros cémt?''' "which (of the two) came?". | |||
== 7.2 Interrogative and relative forms == | |||
As mentioned in '''2.2''', there is absolute syncretism between the interrogative (question) forms, and relative forms, so the same word will be used for '''qís cémt?''' "who came?" as in '''só ǵhmô qis cémt''' "the person who came". The difference between the words, as seen in the examples, is that the interrogative forms must be stressed, but the relative forms do not need to be. | |||
== 7.3 Proximal, medial, distal == | |||
There are three levels of deixis in SAvIE. If one imagines two people speaking to each other, deixis works like this: the ''proximal'' indicates something which is closest to the speaker, the ''medial'' indicates something close to the listener, and the ''distal'' far from both. | |||
== 7.4 Location, source, goal == | |||
There is a small difference between these forms. Since ''source'' and ''goal'' are fairly self explanatory (indicating respectively where something comes from and what something goes to), location indicates where something exists statically, and lacks any implication of movement. As such, it tends to be used with '''Héses''' often: '''kúr Hésti ís?''' "where is he?", whereas the source/goal forms tend to be used often with verbs of motion: '''qôdhe cémt ís?''' "where did he come from?", and '''qómde Hêjst ís?''' "where did he go to?". | |||
However, colloquially, the location form can be used for both of these: '''kúr cémt ís?''' and '''kúr Hêjst ís?''', especially when the context is clear. | |||
= 8 Numerals = | |||
There are two major classes of numerals, the cardinal and the ordinal. Cardinal numerals indicate plain numbers, and ordinal numerals indicate the order of a number in a series. | |||
== 8.1 "one" == | |||
The number 1 conjugates as a regular adjective. Its base form is '''Hójnos''', which is related to the indefinite article '''Hójwos''', with a suppletive ordinal form '''pr̥Hwós'''. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hójnos | |||
Hójnā | |||
Hójnas | |||
Hójnom | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwós ~ pr̥Hmós | ||
pr̥Hwâ | |||
pr̥Hwás | |||
pr̥Hwóm | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hójnosjo | |||
Hójnās | |||
Hójnasjo | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwósjo | ||
pr̥Hwâs | |||
pr̥Hwásjo | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwôs | |||
pr̥Hwâs | |||
pr̥Hwájes | |||
pr̥Hwâ | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| pr̥Hwôm | |||
pr̥Hwâōm | |||
pr̥Hwájōm | |||
|} | |} | ||
There is no plural form for the cardinal, since you cannot express one of multiple things. | |||
== 8.2 "two" == | |||
The number 2 does not decline for case, its form is '''dwô''', '''dwâH''', '''dwój(H)''' in cardinal form. Its ordinal form is either '''Hánteros''', '''Hánterā''', '''Hánterom''' (noting the contrastive ending), or '''séqonts''', '''séqontī''', '''séqont''' (from a participial form of the verb '''séqeti''' "to follow"). It also has the special prefix form '''dwi-'''. | |||
== 8.3 "three" == | |||
Beginning with '''tréjes''' "three", the ordinal numbers become more regularised. Despite being slightly irregular, these forms do in fact decline as though their nominative singular ended in '''-s''', with the oblique stem '''trí-''' or '''tr̥j-'''. The feminine stem, exceptionally, is '''tisr-''', and also declines as a noun in '''-s'''. It also has the special prefix form '''tri-'''. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tritós | |||
tritâ | |||
tritás | |||
tritóm | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tritósjo | |||
tritâs | |||
tritásjo | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tréjes | |||
tísres | |||
trájes | |||
trî | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| tritôs | ||
tritâs | |||
tritájes | |||
tritâ | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tr̥jôm | |||
tisrôm | |||
tr̥jájōm | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tritôm | |||
tritâōm | |||
tritájōm | |||
|} | |||
== 8.3 "four" == | |||
Similarly to "three", the number 4 has a feminine stem '''qétesr-''' (oblique '''qetesr-''') and a stem for all other genders '''qetwór-''' (oblique '''qetur-''' and '''qetwr̥-'''). | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative sg.''' | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| ⸻ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tós | |||
qetwr̥tâ | |||
qetwr̥tás | |||
qetwr̥tóm | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive sg.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tósjo | |||
qetwr̥tâs | |||
qetwr̥tásjo | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Nominative pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwóres | |||
qétesres | |||
qetwórajes | |||
qetwôr | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tôs | ||
qetwr̥tâs | |||
qetwr̥tásjo | |||
qetwr̥tâ | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Genitive pl.''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qeturôm | |||
qetesrôm | |||
qeturájōm | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥tôm | ||
qetwr̥tâōm | |||
qetwr̥tájōm | |||
|} | |||
== 8.4 5 to 10 == | |||
These numbers do not decline for gender or case. | |||
{| class="wikitable | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''5''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| pénqe | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| penqetós / -â / -óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''6''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| swéḱs | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱstós / -â / -óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''7''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| septḿ̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥mós / -â / -óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''8''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtôw | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtowós / -â / -óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''9''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnéwn̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnewn̥nós / -â / -óm | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''10''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| deḱm̥tós / -â / -óm | |||
|} | |||
== 8.5 11 to 19 == | |||
These numbers do not seem to have reconstructible proto-language forms. As such, I am assigning them values with internal morphology: the number '''déḱm̥''', followed by the augment particle '''Hé''', and a number between 1 and 9, such as '''déḱm̥ He Hójnos''' "eleven", to '''déḱm̥ He Hnéwn̥''' "nineteen". Alternatively, the numbers can be prefixed unstressed to '''déḱm̥''' as below. | |||
In counting without referring to any specific object, the neuter forms of the numbers 1-4 should be used. When the numbers are used attributively, they should match the gender and number of the following numeral. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''11''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He Hójnom | |||
Hojnodéḱm̥ | |||
| | | rowspan="9" style="text-align: center;"| deḱm̥tós / -â / -ás / -óm | ||
+ | |||
''corresponding cardinal numbers'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''12''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He dwójH | |||
dwidéḱm̥ | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''13''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He trî | |||
tridéḱm̥ | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| '''14''' | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He qetwôr | |||
qeturdéḱm̥ | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''15''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He pénqe | |||
penqedéḱm̥ | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''16''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He swéḱs | |||
sweḱsdéḱm̥ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''17''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He septḿ̥ | |||
septm̥déḱm̥ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''18''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He (H)oḱtôw | |||
(H)oḱtōwdéḱm̥ | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''19''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| déḱm̥ He Hnéwn̥ | |||
Hnewn̥déḱm̥ | |||
| | |} | ||
== 8.6 20 to 90 == | |||
Each multiple of 10 has a unique term, and combines with numbers exactly as '''déḱm̥''' does. | |||
|- | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Ordinal''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''20''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (d)wídḱm̥ti | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (d)widḱm̥tós | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''30''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tridḱómt | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tridḱm̥tós | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''40''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qétwr̥dḱómt | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qétwr̥dkm̥tós | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''50''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| penqedḱómt | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| penqedḱm̥tós | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''60''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱsdḱómt | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱsdḱm̥tós | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''70''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥dḱómt | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥dkm̥tós | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''80''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtódḱomt | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱtodḱm̥tós | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''90''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnéwn̥dḱomt | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnewn̥dkm̥tós | |||
|} | |||
== 8.7 Prefix forms == | |||
There are special forms used for prefixing numbers to nominals. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cardinal''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''1''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| sm̥- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''2''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| dwi- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''3''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| tri- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''4''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| qetwr̥- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''5''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| penqe- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''6''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| sweḱs- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''7''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| septm̥- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''8''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| (H)oḱto- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''9''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Hnewn̥- | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''10, and multiples''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| dekm̥-, -dkm̥t- | |||
|} | |||
== 8.8 Larger numbers == | |||
The numbers 100 and 1,000 are '''ḱm̥tóm''' and '''(sm̥)ǵhéslom''' '''~''' '''tûsonts'''. '''ḱm̥tóm''' and '''(sm̥)ǵhéslom''' are invariable, whereas '''tûsonts''' declines as a regular '''-onts''' noun or adjective. Their ordinal forms are '''ḱm̥tontós''' "hundredth" and '''(sm̥)ǵhelsontós''' '''~''' '''tūsontós''' "thousandth". | |||
A derivative of '''(sm̥)ǵhéslom''', combined with the augmentative suffix, giving '''(sm̥)ǵhéslōnom''' (shortened from ''*(sm̥)ǵhésloHonom'') is used to mean "million" with the ordinal form '''(sm̥)ǵheslōntós'''; further derivation gives '''disǵhéslōnom''' (ordinal form '''disǵheslōntós'''), meaning "billion" and '''trisǵhéslōnom''' (ordinal form '''trisǵheslōntós''') for "trillion". Prefix forms can be used even further, giving simple prefixes up to '''deḱm̥ǵhéslōnom''' "decillion", and much greater numbers up to '''Hnéwn̥dḱomtHnéwn̥ǵhéslōnom''' for "novemnonagintillion". | |||
The connector '''He''' should only be used between tens and units of each group of three numbers. So, the number '''987,654,321''' would be represented as '''Hnéwn̥ ḱm̥tóm Hoḱtodḱómt <u>He</u> septḿ̥ ǵhéslōnā, swéḱs ḱm̥tóm penqedḱómt <u>He</u> qetwôr túsontH, trî ḱm̥tóm (d)wídḱm̥ti <u>He</u> Hójnom'''. | |||
== 8.9 Multiplicative forms == | |||
Each number can be given a special multiplicative form, producing an adjective meaning "X times". Multiplicatives are formed by affixing the special prefix of the numbers 1-10 to the word '''-pléḱs''' "-fold". | |||
For example, 1-4 produce the forms '''sm̥pléḱs''' "single, onefold", '''dwipléḱs''' "double, twofold", '''tripléḱs''' "triple, threefold", and '''qetwr̥pléḱs''' "quadruple, fourfold". | |||
== 8.10 Exceptional "times" forms. == | |||
The numbers 2 and 3 have the special forms '''dís''' and '''trís''', meaning "twice" and "thrice" respectively. | |||
== 8.11 Collective forms == | |||
A collective numeral is one which specifies "a group of X". The first form is '''dwôdwō''', meaning "pair". The rest are formed by suffixing '''-ō''' to the prefix form of a number, with an intervening '''-l-''' (as if from '''-lós''') to prevent hiatus. The stress falls on the prefix in the nominative-vocative-accusative, and the ending in the oblique, as expected for '''-ō'''. This gives '''tríō''' "trio, threesome", '''qetwŕ̥ō''' "quartet, foursome", '''qénqelō''' "quintet, fivesome", '''swéḱsō''' "sextet", '''septḿ̥ō''' "septet", '''(H)oḱtólō''' "octet", '''Hnéwnō''' "nonet", and '''déḱmō''' "dectet". Using prefixed numbers makes forms such as '''dwidéḱmō''' "dozen". The larger numbers give '''ḱm̥tolō''' "group of a hundred", '''(sm̥)ǵhéslō ~ tûsontō''' "group of a thousand", and '''(sm̥)ǵhéslōnō''' "group of a million" with derivatives thereof. | |||
== 8.12 Case agreement == | |||
= | |||
The numbers 1,3, and 4, given that they decline, are used attributively as though they were adjectives, meaning the noun which they count can be in any case, and the case of the number and noun must agree: '''Hójnos wīrós''' "one man", '''tr̥jôm wīrôm''' "of three men", '''qetwr̥mós wīrómos''' "(for/to) four men". Since other numbers do not decline, only the noun which they modify declines according to the function of the main noun: '''éǵ wélō pénqe wīróms''' "I see five men". | |||
= 9 Prepositions = | |||
Prepositions in SAvIE always precede the nominal which they modify; they will always be placed before nouns and adjectives. They govern only one of two cases: the locative for prepositions which imply location at, near, or in relation to something, and the accusative for motion to or from, and everything else. So, prepositions such as '''Hén''' "in" can be used with different cases to modify their meaning, as in '''Hén dém''' "in a house" and '''Hén dôm''' "into a house". | |||
Positional adverbs, such as '''déḱs''' "(on the) right", can also be used, requiring the genitive: '''déḱs tosjo déms''' "to/on the right of the house". | |||
Below is a list of prepositions and positional adverbs and their meanings with the cases they govern. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Preposition''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Meaning''' | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Preposition''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Meaning''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''bhêǵhs''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| without | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hpó''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| from | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''dê''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| from | |||
of | |||
thanks to | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hpós''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| after | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''déḱs''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| on/to the right | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''ḱóm''' | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| with (using, in the company of) | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''énu''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| after | |||
along | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''me''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''(H)éti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| beyond | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''pér''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| through, via, by means of | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hén''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| in | |||
into | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''péri''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| about, regarding, because of | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Héǵhs''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| out (of) | |||
out (from) | |||
| | | style="text-align: right;"| '''préti''' | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| towards | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Heǵhstós''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| outside of | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''préj''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| in front of | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Héǵhsteros''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| besides, other than | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''pró''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| before, in front of | |||
to(ward), up to | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hentér''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| between | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''sn̥(H)tér''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| separate from | |||
without | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hépi''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| on, upon, at (sea etc.), on (animals etc.) | |||
onto | |||
|- | | style="text-align: right;"| '''swéd''' | ||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| without | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dó''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| into | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''tr̥Hás''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| across, along, through | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dóm''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| inside of, within | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''úd''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| upwards | |||
above | |||
+ ''Hád'' going up to | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dhér''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| beneath, underneath | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''upér(i)''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| above, over | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hn̥dhí''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| under | |||
to the bottom of | |||
| | | style="text-align: right;"| '''upó''' | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| under | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hád''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| at | |||
to(wards) | |||
| | | style="text-align: right;"| '''wí''' | ||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| away from | ||
against | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hánt(i)''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| opposite | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''wír''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| without | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hapó''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| away from | |||
away from | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Háwti''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| either / or | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right;"| '''Hm̥bhí''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| around, surrounding | |||
about, regarding | |||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|} | |||
= 10 Discourse = | |||
The most important addition to this basic overview of grammar is discursive words; those which can be used to carry and shape conversations. | |||
== 10.1 Questions and particles == | |||
Ordinarily, questions in SAvIE need not be marked either at the start or the end of the sentence. As per '''3.1''', questions are indicated by inverting the subject and verb: '''ís cémt''' "he came" becomes '''cémt is?''' "did he come?". When using pro-forms, these start the sentence: '''qís Hésti ís?''' "who is he?". | |||
However, the word '''Hár ~ Hr̥''', meaning "so" or "thus" in positive sentences, can be used to introduce a sentence: '''Hár qís Hésti ís?''' "so who is he?". | |||
In addition, the phrase '''né Hésti…?''' "isn't it…?" can be used with the regular statement to form a yes/no question in one of two ways: firstly, it can be used to introduce a subordinate clause, as in '''né Hésti, qid ís cémt?''' "isn't it [the case] that he came?"; the second is that it can be used as a tag question at the end of a sentence, as in '''ís cémt, né Hésti?''' "he came, isn't it?". | |||
The simple responses to yes/no questions is '''nójnom''', '''né tód''', or '''Hóju qíd''' "no", and the positive is '''já ~ sejḱe ~ tód'''. There is no fundamental difference between any of these words; they have different origins and can be used depending on the speaker's preference for their source. For example, '''nójnom''' is a shortening of '''né (H)ójnom''', from Latin ''nōn'', whereas '''Hóju qíd''' is the form of Greek ''οὐ(κ) ~ οὐ(χ)'' and Armenian ''ոչ''; meanwhile, '''já''' is ubiquitous in Germanic, '''séjḱe''' also from Latin ''sīc'', and '''(né)''' '''tód''' as seen in Celtic languages, such as Welsh ''do ~ naddo''. | |||
In addition to the simple answers, SAvIE can produce yes/no answers to polar questions by repeating the verb either in a positive or negative polarity. If the question were '''cémt ís?''' "did he come?", a positive response would be '''cémt''' "he came (yes)", and a negative response would be '''né(ghe) cémt''' "he didn't come (no)". Note that the negative particle here can either be '''né''' or '''néghe'''; the '''-ghe''' suffix intensifies the previous particle. | |||
== 10.2 Subordinate clauses == | |||
These can be introduced in one of two ways. | |||
The first is introducing an entirely independent subordinate clause with the word '''qid''', such as in '''éǵ wéjdō, qid ís cémt''' "I know that he came". | |||
- | Clauses that are more semantically linked to the antecedent use interrogative-relative pronouns: '''só wīrós, qésjo cên cémt…''' "the man, whose wife came…", literally "the man, of whom [the] wife came…". | ||
== 10.3 Hypothetical sentences == | |||
Hypothetical sentences are introduced by '''sô ~ séj''' "if", which is an innovated and fossilized thematicisation of '''só''' in the instrumental and locative cases, respectively, meaning "with this" or "in this". This is modelled on the etymology of the Latin ''sī''. '''mā''' can be used as in Celtic, '''jéj''' as in Baltic, or '''qéj''' as in some Slavic. None of these words differs in meaning. | |||
The consequence can be introduced without any particle, but can also optionally be introduced with the particle '''tómḱe''' "then, in that case", or '''tóqe''' "then". | |||
=== 10.3.1 Conditionals === | |||
The verb '''skéles''' "to owe" should be used in the deponent aorist subjunctive to form a periphrastic conditional tense with the purportative, thus giving '''séj ís cémt, éǵ skêlsōr kápos wl̥Htóm welos ím''' "If he came, I would have wanted to see him". When there are two verbs that require the purportative in a row, one is in the accusative '''(é)-os''' form, and the second is in the genitive '''(é)-esos''' form: '''séj ís cémti, éǵ skêlsōr wélHos wélesos ím''' "If he comes, I would want to see him". Literally this means something like "...that I owe wanting of seeing". | |||
== 10.4 Negation of nominals == | |||
Nominals must be negated by the particle '''néghe''' "not"; this can be attached directly to nominals, such as '''néghe méǵHs''' "not great", or '''néghe wīrós''' "not a man". Determiners can also precede the nominal: '''néghe só wīrós''' "not the/this man". | |||
== 10.5 Either/or == | |||
"Either" and "or" are both expressed by the word '''Háwti''': '''Háwti cm̥dhí ḱóm mé, Háwti méne''' "either come with me, or stay". | |||
== 10.6 Prohibition == | |||
In conjunction with the imperative verb form, the particle '''mê''' "do not…!" (from ''*meh₁'' as seen in Greek ''μή'') is used to express prohibition: '''Hidhí!''' "go!" becomes '''mê Hidhí!''' "do not go!" | |||
== 10.7 Conjunctions == | |||
=== 10.7.1 Addition === | |||
Following the presence of ''A and B'' constructions in SAE, this is the preferred structure for the ''and'' construction. Rather than using the Proto-Indo-European ''*-kʷe'' suffix, alternative strategies are preferred. These are '''Hé''' (the augment ''*h₁é''), '''ḱḿ̥ti''' (modelled on the Greek ''καί''), '''Héti''' (modelled on the Latin ''et''), '''Hánti''' (synonymous with the preposition, modelled on Proto-Germanic ''*andi''), '''Héj''' (modelled on Proto-Slavic ''*i''), or '''Hṓd''' (modelled on Proto-Balto-Slavic ''*ō'', based on a hypothetical ablative PIE form ''*h₁ōd''). | |||
"Also" can be expressed with '''qōdqe''', a fossilised ablative of a thematicisation of '''qís''', meaning approximately "and from which", or '''Héwghe''' (modelled on Proto-Germanic ''*auk''). | |||
=== 10.7.2 Consequence === | |||
Consequence in the form of "then" or "so" is expressed with '''tôd''', yet another fossilised ablative of a thematicised '''só ~ sâ ~ tód''', such as '''éǵ cêm, tôd ís lêjqst''' "I came, then he left". | |||
=== 10.7.3 Purpose, intent === | |||
= | |||
An intended consequence, expressing "so that" or "in order to", is expressed with a similar form to the above, '''téj''', a thematicised dative meaning "to this", and a subordinate clause introduced by '''qid''' with the verb in the subjunctive, such as '''éǵ qrêjHsm̥ tód, téj qid tû Hédesi íd''' "I bought this so you could eat it". | |||
=== 10.7.4 Alternatives === | |||
== | |||
The basic words "or" and "nor" are expressed by '''íwe ~ íwē''' or '''éjwe ~ éjwē''' (based on ''*i-'' and ''*ey-'' as pronominal bases) in the positive polarity ('''éǵ íwe tû''' "I or you") and '''néwe''' in the negative ('''néghe éǵ néwe tû''' "not I nor you, not me and not you"). | |||
'''-we ~ -wē''' can also be suffixed to any words meaning "if" to produce "but if" or "if, on the other hand": '''séjwe né cémti ís, qíd tôd?''' "but if he doesn't come, what then?". | |||
=== 10.7.5 Exceptions === | |||
The word "but" can be expressed either as '''íde ~ éjde''' (using the Proto-Indo-European ''*de'' contrastive particle) or '''Heǵhstós''' (modelled on the Greek ''εχτός'' and Proto-Celtic ''*extos'') at the beginning of a phrase, and the postclitic '''de''' otherwise to indicate a break in a sentence. Since it breaks a sentence apart, the part of the sentence ending '''de''' is considered disjunct, and can refer either to a subject or an object. The case of the preceding nominal can match its function in the following sentence. | |||
So, in '''só Háljos/tóm Háljom de, né wêlsm̥ éǵ ím''' "the other one, however, I didn't see it", note the presence of both '''Háljos''' and '''Háljom''', both of which are treated slightly differently. In the nominative, the phrase ending '''de''' is treated more as a topic and the antecedent as a comment; in the accusative, it is treated as a disjunct object rather than a topic, and matches its expected function in the antecedent. | |||
== 10.8 Politeness and formality == | |||
Several strategies can be employed to introduce formality to SAvIE. The majority of these should be limited to forms of address, but some others exist. | |||
=== 10.8.1 T-V distinction === | |||
Although many modern Indo-European languages employ a T-V distinction, it is best avoided in SAvIE. However, usage thereof should not be considered entirely incorrect. If a speaker chooses to use a T-V distinction, the expected follows: the 2nd person plural forms take the place of the singular forms in polite speech. So, one person is referred to politely as '''jû''' rather than '''tû''', and verbs and adjectives are inflected in the plural rather than the singular. This turns the informal '''tû Hési méǵHs''' “you are tall” into '''jû Hsté méǵHas'''. | |||
=== 10.8.2 Third person verb constructions === | |||
Rather than using the second-person plural for a more classically Indo-European T-V distinction, the third person can be used as it is employed in various modern languages. This category includes some formations innovated by SAvIE. | |||
==== 10.8.2.1 Praising the listener ==== | |||
This follows the pattern of the Spanish ''usted'', which is derived from ''vuestra merced'' “your mercy”. As the etymology of ''merced'' is so opaque, it has been discarded entirely. Instead, many synonymous constructions can be built from '''cérHtis''' “praise, grace”, whose root '''cérH-''' gives the Latin ''grātia''. | |||
This can optionally be supplemented with a second-person possessive adjective '''tós''' (or any of its variants, if avoiding T-V) or '''usós''' (if using T-V), giving '''tâ cérHtis''' or '''usâ cérHtis'''. The resulting phrase then inflects in its entirety. This is then used with a third-person verb. | |||
==== 10.8.2.2 Invariant third-person plural ==== | |||
The pronoun '''î''', along with the third-person plural verbal forms, can be used to refer to a single person politely. | |||
==== 10.8.2.3 Alternative pronominal forms ==== | |||
The pronoun '''ḱénos / -ā / -as''', declined according to both case and number depending on the number of referents, can be used with the corresponding verbal number of the third person in polite speech. In addition to the above established pronoun, the neologism '''(H)irós / -â / -ás''', an adjectival form modelled on the third-person pronouns '''ís / î / jás''' can be used as a polite second-person pronoun. This also declines as expected, giving '''(H)irôs / -âs / -ájes''' for multiple referents. | |||
=== 10.8.3 Titles and forms of address === | |||
People can be referred to with titles attached to their names, in addition to the formal verb constructions given above. The title ''Mister'' and its cognates can be given as '''méǵHisteros / -ā / -as''', while common Romance terms ''señor, signore, monsieur'' are given as '''sénjōs / sn̥jésī / -josas'''. | |||
Due to a close proximity to the meanings of their individual stems, the former should be reserved for distinguished persons with some form of appointed title, and the latter for older people. A much more neutral but familiar term would be '''soqHjós / -â / -ás''', cognate with Latin ''socius''. A less familiar form would be '''Hwésus / Huséwī / Huséwy'''. | |||
Each of these titles is abbreviated, respectively, '''m.''', '''s.''', '''so.''', and '''u.''' | |||
= 11 Further rules and conventions of writing = | |||
== 11.1 Writing system == | |||
The default writing system in this document has been the Latin script, but this need not necessarily be the case. In '''Appendix D''' there is a full alphabet shown with the Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Armenian, and Devanagari scripts, all of which can be used effectively to write SAvIE. For ease and universality, the Latin alphabet may be preferred, but this Appendix allows for a wider range of writing. | |||
== 11.2 Case == | |||
SAvIE should be written entirely unicase. This means that there should be no distinction made between lowercase and uppercase letters. Although the letters ⟨h⟩ and ⟨H⟩ both exist in the Latin alphabet, it should be noted that these are two different letters with two different functions, not merely variants of one another. Common usages of capital letters in some languages, such as indicating proper nouns, are not treated specially in SAvIE, and should all be written lowercase. | |||
This being said, this might be a difficult habit to break for some users. The practice should be avoided as per the standards of this document, but should not be seen as incorrect otherwise. | |||
== 11.3 Clause- and sentence-final punctuation == | |||
In all alphabets, natively-used punctuation should be employed. Where applicable, the comma ⟨,⟩ and period ⟨.⟩ should be used to indicate a break in and termination of a sentence, respectively. The relevant question and exclamation marks should also serve their respective purposes. | |||
== 11.4 Quotation == | |||
For block quotation, such as lines of dialogue, an em-dash ⟨—⟩ should be used for each line of dialogue, followed either by a double space, or a tab stop. | |||
For inline quotation, a double guillemet ⟨« »⟩ should wrapped around a quotation, and a nested quotation within that should be marked with a single guillemet ⟨‹ ›⟩. | |||
This usage can be mirrored with quotation marks, directional or otherwise. Double quotation marks ⟨" "⟩ ⟨“ ”⟩ enclose the main quotation, with single marks ⟨' '⟩ ⟨‘ ’⟩ enclosing a nested quotation. | |||
In addition, lowered quotation marks can be used as in German and Slavic languages, either both low ⟨„ „⟩, or high and low ⟨„ ”⟩, with single marks ⟨‚ ‚⟩ and ⟨‚ ’⟩ for nested quotes. It is strongly preferred that the direction of punctuation marks conform to the above examples, but inverting one or both (such as ⟨» «⟩ or ⟨„ “⟩) should not be considered incorrect. | |||
== 11.5 Larger breaks == | |||
Any piece of text above a sentence can be broken up with special typographical conventions. | |||
Paragraphs are broken by a single newline character, with new paragraphs optionally beginning with a tab stop. Collections of paragraphs can be broken up into logical groups by beginning the paragraph of a new logical group with the section symbol '''§''' followed by a tab stop. Groups of sections can be divided by placing an asterism symbol '''⁂''' on its own line, and beginning a new paragraph on a new line afterwards as expected. The asterism can optionally be padded with an extra empty line on either side of it. | |||
= 12 Borrowing and conversion to SAvIE = | |||
- | Borrowing from other languages forms an integral part of the function of all Indo-European languages; whether through language contact, colonial or imperial superstrata or adstrata, archaism, or scientific and technical vocabulary, borrowing is crucial in the formation of a wider vocabulary. | ||
The strategies for borrowing words into SAvIE is that they must preferably be nativised, using known etymologies to convert words into SAvIE as though they had originated their to begin with. Where this cannot be done, or where it would not be appropriate to do so, words can be borrowed in directly, using SAvIE phonology where possible, and several additions to the alphabet where not possible. | |||
== 12.1 Sounds foreign to SAvIE == | |||
All sounds native to the language have been listed at the very start of this document. However, these do not encompass all possible sounds that could be represented in SAvIE for borrowings. Extra consonant sounds and their corresponding graphs are as follows. | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Sound''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Graph''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /f/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨f⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /ɣ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ǥ⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /h/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ħ⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /x/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨x⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /ʃ/, /tʃ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨š⟩, ⟨tš⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /ʒ/, /dʒ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ž⟩, ⟨dž⟩, ⟨ǰ⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /v/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨v⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /z/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨z⟩ | |||
|} | |||
Uvular sounds such as [q], [χ], and [ʁ] can be converted to their non-uvular counterparts [k], [x], [r ~ ɾ ~ ɹ]. | |||
In addition, the following vowel sounds can be used: | |||
| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Sound''' | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| '''Graph''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /æ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ä⟩ | |||
⟨ā̈⟩ when long | |||
⟨a̋⟩ when stressed | |||
⟨ä̂⟩ when stressed and long | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align: center;"| /ə ~ ɜ/ and similar, when non-native | ||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ë⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /ɨ ~ ɯ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ï⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /ø ~ œ/ and similar | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ö⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /y ~ ʏ/ and similar | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ü⟩ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| Any nasal vowel | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ⟨ã ẽ ĩ⟩ etc. | |||
|} | |||
Non-native sounds should only be spelled using the above alternative characters where it is necessary or especially desirable to represent non-native pronunciation. This really need only be the case in words which are nativised, or for educational purposes. When writing the names of people, places, and things, and when those are not integrated into SAvIE, their official spelling or transliteration should be used instead. | |||
Equally, words which are grammaticalised can be spelt with nativised phonology. This is often a simple matter of finding the closest representative sounds which exist in SAvIE, but can present some difficulties. In particular, given the lack of fricative sounds /f v h/, the sounds ⟨bh gh⟩ can be used instead. | |||
So, for example, the French word ''bureau'' could be borrowed in as any of the following: | |||
* '''bűro, büró''': indeclinable, with foreign phonology | |||
* '''bűrō, bürô''': declinable as a masculine '''-ō''' noun, with foreign phonology | |||
* '''bjúro, bjuró''': indeclinable, with native phonology | |||
* '''bjúrō, bjurô''': declinable as a masculine '''-ō''' noun, with native phonology | |||
in addition to the borrowed spelling and pronunciation '''bureau'''. | |||
Note also how the non-native stress pattern is subject to interpretation in how it is represented in SAvIE. | |||
In addition, the grammatical pattern that this word has been made to fit is purely representative. It could just as easily be '''bűros ~ bűrosjo''', '''bűrom ~ bűrosjo''', or even '''bűros ~ bűresos'''. Ideally, the chosen form should represent the original word and, if applicable, its declension pattern as best as possible. | |||
== 12.2 Borrowed morphology == | |||
Some morphology, such as affixes in particular, is so commonly shared between languages as to be worth borrowing into SAvIE. Affixes in particular can form large quantities of vocabulary and can, with some modification and filling in by analogy, be nativised into SAvIE for use in new vocabulary. | |||
| | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Original suffix''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cognates''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Form in SAvIE''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-άζω'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-adjeti ''v.'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-(ο)-ειδής'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-oid'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (e)-wéjdēs ~ (é)-wéjdesos ''adj.'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-ίζω'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ize / -ise'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-idjeti ''v.'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr ''-ισμός'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ism'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-ismós ''n.m'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-ιστής'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ist'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idtās ''n.m/n.f'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-λογία'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-logy'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| =lògiā (close compound) ''n.f'' | |||
lógiā (loose compound) ''n.f'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-λόγος'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-logue'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| =logòs (close) ''n.m'' | |||
logós (loose) ''n.m'' | |||
|- | |||
|- | | style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr. ''-(η)τής'' | ||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ete'' | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| -tās ~ -tās (< -tāos) ''n.m/n.f'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr ''-φιλία'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-philia'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| =bhìliā (close) ''n.f'' | |||
bhíliā (loose) ''n.f'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| A.Gr ''-φιλος'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-phile'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| =bhìlos / -ā / -om (close) ''n.'' | |||
bhílos / -ā / -om (loose) ''n.'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-arian'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ārius / -a / -um'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-āsjós / -â / -ás / -óm ''n.'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ics'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Gr. ''-ικά'' | |||
Gr. ''-ική'' | |||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| (é)-ikā, (∅)-kâ ''n.n'' | ||
| | |||
(é)-ikā, (∅)-kâ ''n.f'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-istics'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| → Ger. ''-istik'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idtikā ''n.n / n.f'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ization'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Sp. ''-ización'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idātīō ''n.f'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ālis / -āle'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-al'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-ālis ~ (∅)-āléjs ''adj.m/f''<ref>Declines as '''-is''' nouns do</ref> | |||
( ́)-āli ~ (∅)-āléjs ''adj.n'' | |||
| | |- | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-āticus / -a / -um'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-atic'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-ātikós / -â / -óm ''adj.'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ātiō'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ation'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-ātīō ''n.f'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-ātus / -a / -um'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ate'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (∅)-ātós ''adj.'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-idus / -a / -um'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-id'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)-idhos / -ā / -om ''adj.'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-īlis / -īle'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ile'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| ( ́)-ilis ~ (∅)-iléjs ''adj.m/f'' | |||
( ́)-ili ~ (∅)-iléjs ''adj.n'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align: left;"| Lat. ''-osus'' via A.Gr ''-ώδης'' | ||
| style="text-align: left;"| Eng. ''-ose, -ous'' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| (é)=Hòdēs ~ =Hòdesos (close) | |||
Hódēs ~ Hódesos (loose) | |||
| | |} | ||
= A Verb template = | |||
'''single transitivity:''' | |||
<u>nonpast thematic</u>: (é)-e-ti ~ (é)-o-nti <u>nonpast athematic</u>: (é)-ti ~ (∅)-énti | |||
<u>né-nonpast</u>: (∅)-⟨né⟩-ti ~ (∅)-⟨n⟩-énti | |||
<u>imperfect thematic</u>: (é)-e-t ~ (é)-o-nt <u>imperfect athematic</u>: (é)-t ~ (∅)-ént | |||
<u>né-imperfect</u> (∅)-⟨né⟩-t ~ (∅)-⟨n⟩-énti | |||
< | <u>NP-T subjunctive:</u> (é)-ē-ti ~ (é)-ō-nti <u>NP-A subjunctive</u>: (é)-e-ti ~ (e)-o-nti | ||
< | <blockquote><u>past subjunctive regardless of thematicity</u>: (ê)-seti ~ (ê)-sonti | ||
</blockquote> | |||
'''transitive:''' | |||
<u>nonpast</u>: (é)-j-e-ti ~ (é)-j-o-nti bhrégjeti ~ bhrégjonti | |||
----- | <blockquote>Hésmi bhr̥gjómHnos | ||
</blockquote> | |||
<u>imperfect</u>: (é)-j-e-t ~ (é)-j-o-nt bhrégjet ~ bhrégjont | |||
< | <blockquote>Hésm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos | ||
</blockquote> | |||
'''intransitive:''' | |||
< | <u>nonpast</u>: (∅)-j-é-ti ~ (∅)-j-ó-nti bhr̥gjéti ~ bhr̥gjónti | ||
Hésmi bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
<u>imperfect</u>: (∅)-j-é-t ~ (∅)-j-ó-nt bhr̥gjét ~ bhr̥gjónt | |||
Hésm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
'''shared:''' | |||
<u>eventive aorist</u>: (ê)-s-t ~ (é)-s-n̥t bhrêgst ~ bhrégsn̥t | |||
bhéwHsm̥ bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
<u>stative aorist</u>: (ó)-e ~ (∅)-êr Hwóse ~ Husêr | |||
bhówHe HusómHnos | |||
<u>stative subjunctive</u>: (é)-e-ti ~ (é)-o-nti Hwéseti ~ Hwésonti | |||
bhéwHeti HusómHnos | |||
<u>habitual</u>: (∅)-é-t ~ (∅)-ó-nt bhr̥gét ~ bhr̥gónt | |||
bhūóm bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
<u>habitual subjunctive</u>: (∅)-ê-ti ~ (∅)-ô-nti bhr̥gêti~ bhr̥gônti | |||
bhūômi bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
'''non-finite forms:''' | |||
<u>present participle</u>: (é)-onts ~ (∅)-n̥tés bhrégonts ~ bhr̥gn̥tés | |||
<u>passive participle</u>: (∅)-ó-mHnos bhr̥gómHnos | |||
<u>past participle</u>: (∅)-tós bhr̥gtós | |||
<u>infinitive</u>: (é)-es bhréges | |||
'''compound tenses:''' | |||
<u>perfect</u>: kápti + PastP kápmi bhr̥gtóm | |||
kápmi bhūtóm bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
<u>pluperfect</u>: kâpst + PastP kâpsm̥ bhr̥gtóm | |||
kâpsm̥ bhūtóm bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
< | <u>future tense</u>: Héjti + PresP locative Héjmi bhr̥gént | ||
Héjmi bhūjént bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
<u>continuous</u>: Héses + PresP Hésmi/Hésm̥/Hêsm̥ ''etc.'' bhrégontom | |||
<blockquote>Hésmi/Hésm̥/Hêsm̥ bhûjont bhr̥gjómHnos | |||
</blockquote> | |||
Law 1: *''Vwm'' > *''Vːm'' and *''VHm'' > *''Vːm'' (Stang's law) | |||
Law 2: ''/-VRs/, */-VRH/ > *-VːR'' | |||
''/-VRH-/ > *-VR-'' (Szemerényi's law) | |||
= B Sample vocabulary = | |||
The following sections give short lists of vocabulary separated by parts of speech. | |||
== B.1 Verbs == | |||
<u>verb infinitive 3sg nonpast 3sg imp. 3sg aorist</u> | |||
'''be able''' gélHes gl̥Hnéwti gl̥Hnéwt gélHt | |||
'''bake''' bhôges bhôgeti bhôget bhôHgst | |||
'''be''' Héses Hésti Hést bhéwst | |||
'''begin''' kénes kéneti kénet kênst | |||
'''breathe out''' dhwéses dhwésti dhwést dhwêst | |||
'''burn''' Héwses Héwseti Héwset Hêwst | |||
'''change (intr.)''' miés méjor méjto mêjsto | |||
'''change (tr.)''' mójnēs mojnéjeti mojnéjet mêjnst | |||
'''come''' cémes cm̥jéti cm̥jét cémt | |||
'''cook''' péqes péqeti péqet pêqst | |||
'''defecate''' ḱéqes ḱéqti ḱéqt ḱêqst | |||
'''do''' dhês dhêti dhêt dhêHst | |||
'''drink''' píbes píbeti píbet pôHst | |||
'''be dressed''' wésjes usjéti usjét wêst | |||
'''eat''' Hédes Hédti Hédt Hêdst | |||
'''exchange''' méjtHes méjtHeti méjtHet mêjtHst | |||
'''go''' Héjes Héjti Héjt Hêjst | |||
'''grow''' Háles Háleti Hálet Hêlst | |||
'''have''' kápes kápti kápt kâpst | |||
'''hear''' HáwdhHes HáwdhHeti HáwdhHet HêwdhHst | |||
'''be hungry''' | |||
'''know''' wéjdes wéjdeti wéjdet wêjdst | |||
'''like''' bhréwgjes bhrûgjeti bhrûgjet bhréwgst | |||
'''make''' dhêkes dhHkjéti dhHkjét dhêkst | |||
wérǵes wérǵeti wérǵet wêrǵst | |||
'''recognize'''<ref>also "to know how to do something"</ref> ǵnôs ǵn̥nôti ǵn̥nôt ǵnôt | |||
'''run''' kérses kr̥séti kr̥sét kêrst (← ''*kḗrs-s-t'') | |||
'''say''' séqes séqeti séqet sêqst | |||
'''see''' wéles wéleti wélet wêlst | |||
'''share''' dhajlés dhájletor dhájleto dhâjlsto | |||
'''shout''' gâres gâreti gâret gêHrst | |||
'''show''' déjḱes déjḱti déjḱt dêjḱst | |||
'''sing''' kânes kHnéti kHnét kânst | |||
'''speak''' wéqes wéqti wéqt wêqst | |||
'''stay''' ménes méneti ménet mênst | |||
'''take''' némes németi német nêmst | |||
'''talk''' tl̥qés tlóqetor tlóqeto têlqsto | |||
'''taste''' ǵéwses ǵéwseti ǵéwset ǵêwst (''← *ǵēws-s-t'') | |||
'''think''' ténges tn̥gjéti tn̥gjét têngst | |||
'''try''' sknés skénetor skéneto skênsto | |||
'''turn''' wértes wértti wért wêrtst | |||
'''use''' bhrūgjés bhrūgjétor bhrūgjéto bhréwgsto | |||
'''utter''' jékes jékti jékt jêkst | |||
'''walk''' câs cHjéti cHjét câst | |||
'''want''' wélHes wélHeti wélHet wêlHst | |||
'''wash (oneself)''' léwHjes lūjéti lūjét lêwHst | |||
'''watch''' spéḱes spéḱti spéḱt spêḱst | |||
'''wear''' usés wés(t)or wésto wêsto (← ''wḗs-s-to'') | |||
'''write''' gérbhes gr̥bhéti gr̥bhét gêrbhst | |||
'''be working''' wérǵjes wr̥ǵjéti wr̥ǵjét ⸻ | |||
== B.2 Nouns == | |||
< | <u>noun nom. sg. gen. sg. nom. pl. gen. pl.</u> | ||
'''baker ''m.''''' bhōgós bhōgósjo bhōgôs bhōgôm | |||
'''book ''m.''''' gérbhs gr̥bhés gérbhes gr̥bhôm | |||
'''''m.''''' lubhrós lubhrósjo lubhrôs lubhrôm | |||
'''bread ''m.''''' bhôgos bhôgosjo bhôgōs bhôgōm | |||
<blockquote>dhonâ dhonâs dhonâs dhonâōm | |||
</blockquote> | |||
'''brother ''m.''''' bhrâtēr bhrâtr̥s bhrâteres bhrâtrōm | |||
'''''m.''''' 〃 bhr̥Htrés 〃 bhr̥Htrôm | |||
'''coin ''f.''''' mónētā mónētās mónētās mónētāōm | |||
'''''m.''''' nómos nómosjo nómōs nómōm | |||
'''earth ''f.''''' dhéǵhōm (dh)ǵhmés ⸻ ⸻ | |||
'''father ''m.''''' pHtêr pHtrés pHtéres pHtrôm | |||
'''fish ''m.''''' péjsks piskés péjskes piskôm | |||
'''friend ''m.''''' dhrowghós dhrowghósjo dhrowghôs dhrowghôm | |||
'''friend, close ''m.''''' bhílos bhílosjo bhílôs bhílōm | |||
'''grain ''n.''''' ǵr̥Hnóm ǵr̥Hnósjo ǵr̥Hnâ ǵr̥nôm | |||
'''house ''f.''''' dôm déms dómes démōm | |||
'''money ''m.''''' pḱunós pḱunósjo pḱunôs pḱunôm | |||
'''mother ''f.''''' mâtēr mâtr̥s mâteres mâtrōm | |||
'''''f.''''' 〃 m̥Htrés 〃 m̥Htrôm | |||
'''nose ''f.''''' nâs n̥Hsés nâses n̥Hsôm | |||
'''person ''m.''''' ǵhmô ǵhm̥nés ǵhmónes ǵhm̥nôm | |||
'''salt ''f.''''' sâls sHlés ''sâles sHlôm'' | |||
'''sister ''f.''''' swésōr susrés swésores susrôm | |||
'''story (account) ''n.''''' wéjdtōrmn̥ widtōrméns wéjdtōrmō widtōrm̥nés | |||
'''story (tale) ''n.''''' câdhlom câdhlosjo câdhlā câdhlōm | |||
== B.3 Adjectives == | |||
<u>adjective nom. sg. gen. sg. nom. pl. gen. pl.</u> | |||
'''dark''' dhuskós dhuskósjo dhuskôs dhuskôm | |||
'''red''' Hrowdhós Hrowdhósjo Hrowdhôs Hrowdhôm | |||
Hrudhrós Hrudhrósjo Hrudhrôs Hrudhrôm | |||
'''tall (of people)''' stHrós stHrósjo stHrôs stHrôm | |||
'''thin''' mHḱrós mHḱrósjo mHḱrôs mHḱrôm | |||
= C Common phrases = | |||
= D Full alphabet and alternative scripts = | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| Phone | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Latin''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Greek''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Cyrillic''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Armenian''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Devanagari''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''Phone''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''L''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''G''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''C''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''A''' | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| '''D''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /a/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| a | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| α | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| а | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ա | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| अ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /kʲ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ḱ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| κ́ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| кь, ќ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ծ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| च | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /aː/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ā | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ᾱ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| а̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ա̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| आ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʲ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ǵ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| γ́ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| гь, ѓ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ձ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ज | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /e/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| e | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ε | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| е | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ե | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ए | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʲʰ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ǵh | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| χ́ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| кьһ, ќһ, гьһ, ѓһ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ց | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| छ, झ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /eː/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ē | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| η | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| е̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| է | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ऐ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /kʷ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| q | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| κϝ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ӄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ճ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| क्व | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /i/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| i | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ι | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| и | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ի | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| इ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʷ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| c | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| γϝ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ҕ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ջ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ग्व | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /iː/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ī | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ῑ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ӣ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ի̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ई | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /gʷʰ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ch | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| χϝ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ҟ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| չ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ख्व, घ्व | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /o/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| o | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ο | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| о | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| օ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ओ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /l/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| l | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| λ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| л | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| լ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ल | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /oː/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ō | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ω | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| о̄, ѡ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ո | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| औ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /l̩/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| l̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| λ̱ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| лъ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| լ̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ऌ, ॡ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /u/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| u | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ου | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| у | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ու | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| उ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /m/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| m | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| μ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| м | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| մ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| म | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /uː/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ū | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| οῡ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ӯ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ու̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ऊ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /m̩/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| m̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| μ̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| мъ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| մ̱ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| मं | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /ə/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ǝ, y | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ə, υ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ә, ы | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ը | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ः | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /n/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| n | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ν | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| н | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ն | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| न | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /p/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| p | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| π | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| п | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| պ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| प | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /n̩/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| n̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ν̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| нъ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ն̱ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| नं | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /b/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| b | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| β | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| б | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| բ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ब | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /r/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| r | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ρ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| р | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ռ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| र | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /bʰ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| bh | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| φ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| пһ, бһ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| փ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| फ, भ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /r̩/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| r̥ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ρ̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ръ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| յ̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ऋ, ॠ | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /k/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| k | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| κ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| к | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| կ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| क | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /j/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| j | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ϳ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ј, й | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| յ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| य | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /g/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| g | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| γ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| г | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| գ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ग | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /s/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| s | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| σς | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| с | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ս | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| स | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /gʰ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| gh | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| χ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| кһ, гһ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ք | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ख, घ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /w/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| w | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ϝ̄ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ԝ, ў | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| վ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| व | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /t/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| t | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| τ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| т | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| տ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| त | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| /H/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| H | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ͱ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ꚕ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| հ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| ह | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /d/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| d | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| δ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| д | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| դ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| द | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: left;"| /dʰ/ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| dh | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| θ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| тһ, дһ, ԁ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| թ | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| थ, ध | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
| style="text-align: center;"| | |||
|} | |||
</ | <references /> | ||