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==Phonology==
==Phonology==
<!-- ***Phonology*** -->
<!-- What sounds does your language use? -->
<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:


Vowel inventory
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
Consonant inventory
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
Syllable structure
|-
Stress
! rowspan="3"| PIE
Intonation
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*p}}
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
| colspan="2" |p
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|p}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t}}
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|t}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|{{PIE|s}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*b}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| {{PIE|b}}
| {{PIE|pt}}
| {{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*d}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|ku
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|{{PIE|qu}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*bʰ}}
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|p
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰ}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
|t
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|ku
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*m}}
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
| {{PIE|in}}
| {{PIE|m}}
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
|n
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| --
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|in}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*l}}
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
|{{PIE|r}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
| {{PIE|il}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*r}}
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
| {{PIE|ir}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*y}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|{{PIE|z}}  {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|?{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|j}}
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*w}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|-
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
Notes for table 1:
{{reflist|group=C}}
 
===Consonant clusters===
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{{expand section|with=thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law|date=August 2016}}
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sr}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
| r
| str
| style="color:gray"| sr
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
| (a)r
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|
| style="color:gray"| rh
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tw}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| θβ
| style="color:gray"| tv
| style="color:gray"| tv
| t
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ttu, ddu
|
| s-, -ss-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| p?
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"| d
| ?
| tu, du
|
|
|
| f
| rowspan="2"| d
| style="color:gray"| dw
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dw}}
| style="color:gray"| dv
| (e)rk
| tu, du
|
|
|
| b
| style="color:gray"| tw
| style="color:gray"| tw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tl}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
| sl
| kl, sl
|
|
|
|
| tl
|
| kl
| tl
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dl}}
| ll
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dn}}
| nn, ṇṇ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
| sp
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| šv
| s
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
| rowspan="2"| z
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sw}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| sv
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
| style="color:gray"| h
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
| s
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sp}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
| style="color:gray"|
| spʰ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
|
| st
|
|
|
|
| d
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| st
| st
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| zd
| zd
| zd
|
|
|
|
| sth
|
|
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*st}}
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|sk}}
|{{PIE|š}}?
|{{PIE|h}}
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sk}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dt}}
| tt
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|st
| st
|
| s
|
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
| ddʰ
| zd
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d
| t
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
| ddʰ
| zd, st
|
| st
|
|
|
|
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*pt}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
| ft
| t?
| style="color:gray"| pt
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
| style="color:gray"| pt
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| st
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| |
|rowspan="3"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kt}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"| xt
|rowspan="2"| t?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| ps
| || || || || || ||
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| ts
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| ||
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
| kṣ
| ž
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ks
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ps
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
| kṣ
| š
|
|
| k
|
|
|
| kt
|
| s
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tk}}
| kṣ
| xš
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kt
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
| kṣ
| z
|
| ž
|
|
| tk
| tk/k
| khth
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
| kṣ
| γž
|
|
|
|
| kts
|
| phth
|
| s
|
|
|
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 


-->
-->
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<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
Veno
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