Linguifex

Aryan: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Aryan (view source)

Revision as of 17:17, 27 October 2024

238 bytes removed ,  27 October
no edit summary
No edit summary
Line 23: Line 23:
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).


==Phonology==
==Transitional Tables==
===Sounds===
 
====Consonants====
===Transitional Table of Aryan===
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 66px; " |
! style="width: 66px; " |
! style="width: 66px; " |
! style="width: 66px; " |Aryan
! style="width: 66px; " |Labial
! style="width: 66px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 66px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 66px; " colspan=2|Velar
! style="width: 66px; " |Pharyngeal
! style="width: 66px; " |Glottal
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Nasal
! p
! Voiceless
| *p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *p<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup>
| *m̥
| *n̥
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Voiced
! t
| *m
| *t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *t<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>
| *n
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive
! k
! Voiceless
| *k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup> / *k<sup>h</sup>; *kʷ / *k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>
| *p
| *t
|
| *k
| *kʷ  
|
| *ʔ
|-
|-
! Voiced
! b
| *b
| *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
| *d
|
| *g
| *gʷ
|
|
|-
|-
! Aspirated-
! d
| *p<sup>h</sup>
| *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
| *t<sup>h</sup>
|
| *k<sup>h</sup>
| *kʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
|-
! Aspirated+
! g
| *b<sup>h</sup>
| *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
| *d<sup>h</sup>
|
| *g<sup>h</sup>
| *gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
|-
! Ejective
! pʼ
| *p’
| *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
| *t’
|
| *k’
| *kʷ’
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
! tʼ
! Voiceless
| *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
|
|-
| *s
! kʼ
|
| kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
| *x
| (*xʷ)
| *ħ
| *h
|-
|-
! Voiced
! ɓ
|
| *b<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *b<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup>
| *z
|
| *ɣ
| (*ɣʷ)
| *ʕ
| *ɦ
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Vibrant
! ɗ
! Voiceless
| *d<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *d<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup>
|
| *r̥
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Voiced
! ɠ
|
| *g<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>; *gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup>
| *r
|}
|
 
|
===Transitional Table (from Aryan to Indo-European Languages)===
|
 
|  
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
|
! style="width: 66px; " |
|-
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
! rowspan=2 | Lateral
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
! Voiceless
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
|
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
| *l̥
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
|-
! >*p
| p; pʰ
| p; f
| p
| p
| p
| h; w
| p;  pp
| p
| p / pt
| p
| ∅
| f; β
|-
! >*t
|
|
|
| x x
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
|
| *l
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! >*k
|  
|  
| x x
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Approximant
! Voiceless
|
|
|
| *j̊
|
|
| *ẘ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Voiced
! >*ḱ
|
| x x
|
|
|
|
| *j
|
|
| *w
|
|
|
|}
|
 
|
====Vowels====
|
|
|
|
|}


====Pitch Accent====
p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] f;
v, f[C 2]


===Meta-Segmentals===


====X====


====X====
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...


====X====
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
 
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
===Supra-Segmentals===
|-
 
! rowspan="3"| PIE
====X====
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
 
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
====X====
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
 
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
====X====
|- align=center
 
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
==Taxology==
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
 
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
===Desinencies===
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
 
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
====Affixes====
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
 
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
====Roots====
|- align=center
 
| <small>normal</small>
====Clitics====
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
 
| <small>normal</small>
===X===
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
 
|- align=center
====X====
!{{PIE|*p}}
 
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
====X====
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
 
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
====X====
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
 
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
===X===
| colspan="2" |p
 
|{{PIE|pt}}
====X====
|{{PIE|p}}
 
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
====X====
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
 
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
====X====
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*t}}
==Semantics==
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
 
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
===Phememes===
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
 
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
====Phones====
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
 
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
====Morphemes====
|{{PIE|t}}
 
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
====Phonemes====
|{{PIE|t}}
 
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
===Tagmemes===
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
 
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
====Semes====
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
====Taxemes====
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
 
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
====Sememes====
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
 
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
===Prosodemes===
|{{PIE|s}}
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
====Glossemes====
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
====Noemes====
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
 
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
====Oidemes====
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
===Transitional Table of Aryan===
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*k}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! style="width: 66px; " |
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Aryan
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! p
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| *p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *p<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|-
|- align=center
! t  
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
| *t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *t<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|-
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
! k
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
| *k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup> / *k<sup>h</sup>; *kʷ / *k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
|-
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
! b
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
|- align=center
|-
!{{PIE|*b}}
! d
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|-
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
! g
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
| {{PIE|b}}
|-
| {{PIE|pt}}
! pʼ
| {{PIE|b}}
| *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
! tʼ
|- align=center
| *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
!{{PIE|*d}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! kʼ
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
! ɓ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
| *b<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *b<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|-
|{{PIE|d}}
! ɗ
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
| *d<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *d<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|d}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
! ɠ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
| *g<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>; *gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup>
|- align=center
|}
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
 
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
===Transitional Table (from Aryan to Indo-European Languages)===
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
 
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
! style="width: 66px; " |
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
| rowspan="2"|k
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
|- align=center
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
!{{PIE|*g}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! >*p
|{{PIE|g}}
| p; pʰ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| p; f
|- align=center
| p
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
| p
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| p
|ku
| h; w
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
| p;  pp
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
| p
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
| p / pt
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| p
|{{PIE|qu}}
| ∅
|- align=center
| f; β
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
|-
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
! >*t
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| colspan="2"|p
| x x
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|
|{{PIE|pt}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
|
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
|
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|-
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
! >*k
|t
|  
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| x x
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
|{{PIE|d}}
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
|
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|-
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
! >*ḱ
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
| rowspan="2"|k
| x x
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
 
|{{PIE|g}}
p pt p ∅ f;
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
b [β] [C 6] f;
|- align=center
v, f[C 2]
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
 
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
 
|ku
 
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
 
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
|{{PIE|s}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*p}}
! {{PIE|*m}}
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| {{PIE|in}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| {{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| colspan="2" |p
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|p}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t}}
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
|n
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|t}}
| --
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
|{{PIE|t}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
! {{PIE|*n}}
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|n}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
|{{PIE|in}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*k}}
! {{PIE|*l}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
|{{PIE|r}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
| {{PIE|il}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
! {{PIE|*r}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
| {{PIE|ir}}
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*b}}
! {{PIE|*y}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
| {{PIE|b}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| {{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/>
| {{PIE|b}}
|?{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|j}}
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*d}}
! {{PIE|*w}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
|{{PIE|d}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
|- align=center
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
|-
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
 
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
Notes for table 1:
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
{{reflist|group=C}}
| rowspan="2"|k
 
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
===Consonant clusters===
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*g}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
|{{PIE|g}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|ku
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|{{PIE|qu}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
!{{PIE|*}}
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| colspan="2"|p
|
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|
|{{PIE|pt}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
!{{PIE|*sr}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| r
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
| str
|t
| style="color:gray"| sr
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| (a)r
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| style="color:gray"| rh
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|{{PIE|d}}
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
!{{PIE|*tw}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
| θβ
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| style="color:gray"| tv
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| t
| rowspan="2"|k
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| ttu, ddu
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| s-, -ss-
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| p?
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"| d
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| ?
|- align=center
| tu, du
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
|
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|
|ku
|
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
| f
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
| rowspan="2"| d
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
| style="color:gray"| dw
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
!{{PIE|*dw}}
|{{PIE|s}}
| style="color:gray"| dv
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| (e)rk
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| tu, du
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
| b
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| style="color:gray"| tw
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| style="color:gray"| tw
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*tl}}
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| sl
| kl, sl
|
|
|
|
| tl
|
| kl
| tl
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*m}}
!{{PIE|*dl}}
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
| ll
| {{PIE|in}}
|  
| {{PIE|m}}
|  
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|  
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
!{{PIE|*dn}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| nn, ṇṇ
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|  
|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|n
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|
| --
|
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*n}}
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| sp
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| style="color:gray"| šv
|{{PIE|n}}
| s
|{{PIE|in}}
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*l}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
| style="color:gray"| hv
|{{PIE|r}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| rowspan="2"| z
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
|
| {{PIE|il}}
|
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|
|- align=center
|
! {{PIE|*r}}
|
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
|
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|
| {{PIE|ir}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*y}}
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
|
|{{PIE|∅}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|z}}  {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
|?{{PIE|i}}
|
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|{{PIE|j}}
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|{{PIE|y}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*w}}
!{{PIE|*sw}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
|{{PIE|v}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|v}}
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
| style="color:gray"| h
|{{PIE|i}}
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
| s
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
| style="color:gray"| sw
|-
| style="color:gray"| sw
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
Notes for table 1:
{{reflist|group=C}}
 
===Consonant clusters===
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
!{{PIE|*sp}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
| style="color:gray"| sp
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
|{{PIE|f}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
| style="color:gray"|
| style="color:gray"|
| spʰ
|
|
|
|
Line 703: Line 672:
|
|
|
|
|-->
|-align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
!{{PIE|*sr}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| style="color:gray"| sr
| zd
| r
| zd
| str
| zd
| style="color:gray"| sr
|  
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
| st
| (a)r
|
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|
|  
|  
|  
| style="color:gray"| rh
| d
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| fr-, -br-
| st
| style="color:gray"| sr
| st
| str
| str
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tw}}
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| θβ
| zd
| style="color:gray"| tv
| zd
| style="color:gray"| tv
| zd
| t
|  
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ttu, ddu
|
|
| s-, -ss-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| p?
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"| d
| ?
| tu, du
|
|
|
|
|
| sth
| f
|  
| rowspan="2"| d
|  
| style="color:gray"| dw
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| style="color:gray"| dw
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dw}}
!{{PIE|*st}}
| style="color:gray"| dv
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| (e)rk
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| tu, du
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
|
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| b
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| style="color:gray"| tw
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
| style="color:gray"| tw
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tl}}
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|
|{{PIE|s}}?
| sl
|{{PIE|sk}}
| kl, sl
|{{PIE|š}}?
|
|{{PIE|h}}
|
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
| tl
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
| kl
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| tl
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dl}}
!{{PIE|*sk}}
| ll
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|  
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 789: Line 765:
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 796: Line 772:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dn}}
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
| nn, ṇṇ
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
|
|
|
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 812: Line 788:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
!{{PIE|*dt}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
| tt
| sp
| st
| style="color:gray"| sv
|  
| style="color:gray"| šv
|  
| s
|  
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|
|
|
|
|
|st
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| st
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|  
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| s
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
|  
| style="color:gray"| wh
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
| ddʰ
|
| zd
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
|  
| rowspan="2"| z
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d
| t
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
| ddʰ
| zd, st
|
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
! {{PIE|*pt}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
| ft
|
| t?
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
|
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sw}}
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| st
| style="color:gray"| sv
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| |
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|rowspan="3"|
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|
| style="color:gray"| h
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|rowspan="2"|
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
| s
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sp}}
! {{PIE|*kt}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|rowspan="2"| xt
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|rowspan="2"| t?
|{{PIE|f}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|rowspan="2"|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
|{{PIE|f}}
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| style="color:gray"|
| ps
| spʰ
| || || || || || ||
|
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
|
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| ts
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
|  
|  
| st
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| d
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
|  
| st
|  
| st
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| zd
| ||
| zd
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| zd
| rowspan="2"|
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
|
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| sth
|  
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*st}}
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="2"|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
|rowspan="2"|
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|rowspan="2"|
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="2"|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| || (ks)
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|sk}}
|{{PIE|š}}?
|{{PIE|h}}
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sk}}
!{{PIE|*gs}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
| kṣ
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|  
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 999: Line 930:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
| kṣ
|
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,015: Line 946:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dt}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
| tt
| kṣ
| st
| ž
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,023: Line 954:
|
|
|
|
|st
|
| st
|  
| ks
|
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
| ss
|
| ss [s]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
| ddʰ
| kṣ
| zd
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,042: Line 973:
|  
|  
|  
|  
| d
|  
| t
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
| ddʰ
| kṣ
| zd, st
|
|  
|  
|  
| st
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
| st
| ps
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,063: Line 994:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*pt}}
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
| kṣ
| ft
| š
| t?
|  
| style="color:gray"| pt
|  
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
| k
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| kt
|  
| s
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
!{{PIE|*tk}}
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| kṣ
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| xš
| st
|  
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|  
| |
|  
|rowspan="3"|
|
|rowspan="2"|
|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|
|rowspan="2"|
| kt
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kt}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"| xt
|rowspan="2"| t?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| ps
| || || || || || ||
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| ts
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
| kṣ
| z
|
| ž
|
|
| tk
| tk/k
| khth
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,120: Line 1,042:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| kṣ
| ||
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
|  
| rowspan="2"|
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| tk
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|
|- align=center
|  
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
| kṣ
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,157: Line 1,058:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
| kṣ
| kṣ
|  
| γž
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
| kts
|
|
|
| phth
|
|
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
-->
===Orthography===
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
!{{PIE|*e}}
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
| ž
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|  
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|ä}}
|
|e, ʔe, i
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
| ks
|  
|  
|  
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
!{{PIE|*a}}
| kṣ
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|
|{{PIE|ā}}
|
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|- align=center
|  
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
|  
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
!{{PIE|*o}}
| kṣ
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
| ps
|
|
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
| š
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|  
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
| k
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
|
|∅
|
|{{PIE|e}}
| kt
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
| s
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|  
|ḫ
|  
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tk}}
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
| kṣ
|∅
| xš
|{{PIE|o}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kt
|
|
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
| z
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
| ž
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|a, ∅
|
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
| tk
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
| tk/k
|- align=center
| khth
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|  
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|ḫa
|  
|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
| kṣ
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
|  
|{{PIE|o}}
|  
|
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
!{{PIE|*ē}}
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
| γž
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|  
|{{PIE|ě}}
|  
|{{PIE|ė}}
|  
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
| kts
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
| phth
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|  
|{{PIE|ī}}
| s
|{{PIE|ē}}
|  
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|
|
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
 
-->
===Orthography===
 
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*ā}}
|- align=center
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
!{{PIE|*e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|e, ʔe, i
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*a}}
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*o}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
|∅
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!{{PIE|*i}}
|ḫ
!{{PIE|*i}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
|∅
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}}
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|a, ∅
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|ḫa
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*ei}}
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
|- align=center
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
!{{PIE|*ē}}
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>  
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ė}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ā}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress/>
|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|oi}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*ai}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
!({{PIE|*ai}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂ei}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}} > {{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|ь}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}}; {{PIE|ā(i)}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|  
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|ē
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|{{PIE|ēi}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ī}}?
|  
|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
!{{PIE|*ōi}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
!{{PIE|*ōi (*oei)}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}}
|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ui}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|ōi}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
!{{PIE|*āi}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
!{{PIE|*eh₂ei}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|
|
|
|ai
|{{PIE|āi > ēi}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|ae}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ei}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>  
|{{PIE|ъ}}
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>  
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|y}}<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|rowspan=7|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|aú}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ū}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
!{{PIE|*uh₁}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|i}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ȳ}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ai}}
!{{PIE|*uh₂}}
!({{PIE|*ai}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂ei}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|{{PIE|ai}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|wā}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|{{PIE|ai}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
!{{PIE|*uh₃}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}} > {{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}}; {{PIE|ā(i)}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|ē
|{{PIE|ēi}}
|{{PIE|ī}}?
|
|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōi}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}
!{{PIE|*ōi (*oei)}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}, {{PIE|*h₁eu}}
|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|au}} > {{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ui}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ə̄u}}; {{PIE|ao}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>  
|
|{{PIE|ju}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|oy}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ōi}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|eu}}
|{{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ou}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|iu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|īe}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*āi}}
!{{PIE|*ou}}
!{{PIE|*eh₂ei}}
!{{PIE|*ou}},{{PIE|*h₃eu}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|au}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, au}}
|ai
|{{PIE|ou}}
|{{PIE|āi > ēi}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*u}}
!{{PIE|*au}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
!({{PIE|*au}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂eu}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|aw}}
|{{PIE|ъ}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|- align=center
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|y}}<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|rowspan=7|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}} > {{PIE|au}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|iau}}  
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|aú}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|
|{{PIE|y}}
|
|
|{{PIE|ū}}?
|  
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ū}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*uh₁}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ū}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ū}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|i}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|
|{{PIE|ū}}
|au
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ȳ}}
|
|
|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₂}}
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|wā}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|im̃}}; {{PIE|um̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel>In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|{{PIE|am}}
|rowspan=10|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|äm}}
|a, un
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|em, am}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ym}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₃}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*m̥̅}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
!{{PIE|*mh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìm}}; {{PIE|ùm}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ama}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|mā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|mē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|mā}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*eu}}
!{{PIE|*mh₂}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}, {{PIE|*h₁eu}}
|{{PIE|mā > mē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|au}} > {{PIE|ō}}
|- align=center
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ə̄u}}; {{PIE|ao}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>  
!{{PIE|*mh₃}}
|{{PIE|ju}}
|{{PIE|mō}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|oy}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|eu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ou}}
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|īe}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ou}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!{{PIE|*ou}},{{PIE|*h₃eu}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|am}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|ьm/ъm}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|im}}; {{PIE|um}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, au}}
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|ou}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|áu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*au}}
!({{PIE|*au}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂eu}}
|{{PIE|aw}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}} > {{PIE|au}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|iau}}  
|
|
|{{PIE|e}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|am}}
|
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|ū}}?
|{{PIE|am}}
|
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|
|au
|{{PIE|ō}}
|
|
|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|im̃}}; {{PIE|um̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel>In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|rowspan=10|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|än}}
|{{PIE|äm}}
|an
|a, un
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|em, am}}
|{{PIE|en, an}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ym}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yn}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*m̥̅}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*n̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*mh₁}}
!{{PIE|*nh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìm}}; {{PIE|ùm}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìn}}; {{PIE|ùn}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ama}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ana}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|mā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|nā}}
|rowspan=3|
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|mē}}
|{{PIE|nē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|mā}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|nā}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₂}}
!{{PIE|*nh₂}}
|{{PIE|mā > mē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|nā > nē}} <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₃}}
!{{PIE|*nh₃}}
|{{PIE|mō}}
|{{PIE|nō}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|am}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|ьm/ъm}}
|{{PIE|ьn/ъn}}
|{{PIE|im}}; {{PIE|um}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥}}
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
!{{PIE|*l̥}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|lь/lъ}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|il̃}}; {{PIE|ul̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|än}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|an
|{{PIE|il, li; ul, lu}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|äl}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|al
|{{PIE|en, an}}
|{{PIE|la}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|{{PIE|ol}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|{{PIE|li}};<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> {{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yn}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul; ol}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yl}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*n̥̄}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*l̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*nh₁}}
!{{PIE|*lh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìn}}; {{PIE|ùn}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ana}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìl}}; {{PIE|ùl}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|nā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ala}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|lā}}
|rowspan=3|
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|nē}}
|{{PIE|lē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|nā}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|lā}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₂}}
!{{PIE|*lh₂}}
|{{PIE|nā > nē}} <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|lā > lē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₃}}
!{{PIE|*lh₃}}
|{{PIE|nō}}
|{{PIE|lō}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ьn/ъn}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ьl/ъl}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|il}}; {{PIE|ul}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al, la}}
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|el}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥}}
!{{PIE|*l̥}}
!{{PIE|*r̥}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|lь/lъ}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|rь/rъ}}
|{{PIE|il̃}}; {{PIE|ul̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ir̃}}; {{PIE|ur̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|il, li; ul, lu}}
|{{PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru}}
|{{PIE|äl}}
|{{PIE|är}}
|al
|ar, ur
|{{PIE|la}}
|{{PIE|ra}}
|{{PIE|ol}}
|{{PIE|or}}
|{{PIE|li}};<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> {{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ri}};<ref group=V name=VPM/> {{PIE|ar}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|aúr}} {{IPA|[ɔr]}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul; ol}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ur; or}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yl}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yr}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*l̥̄}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*r̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*lh₁}}
!{{PIE|*rh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìl}}; {{PIE|ùl}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìr}}; {{PIE|ùr}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ala}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ara}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ra}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|lā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|rā}}
|rowspan=3|
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|lē}}
|{{PIE|rē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|lā}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|rā}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₂}}
!{{PIE|*rh₂}}
|{{PIE|lā > lē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|rā > rē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₃}}
!{{PIE|*rh₃}}
|{{PIE|lō}}
|{{PIE|rō}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьl/ъl}}
|{{PIE|ьr/ъr}}
|{{PIE|il}}; {{PIE|ul}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al, la}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|el}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥}}
 
!{{PIE|*r̥}}
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|rь/rъ}}
|{{PIE|ir̃}}; {{PIE|ur̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru}}
|{{PIE|är}}
|ar, ur
|{{PIE|ra}}
|{{PIE|or}}
|{{PIE|ri}};<ref group=V name=VPM/> {{PIE|ar}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|aúr}} {{IPA|[ɔr]}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ur; or}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yr}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*r̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*rh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìr}}; {{PIE|ùr}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ara}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ra}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|rā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|rē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|rā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₂}}
|{{PIE|rā > rē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₃}}
|{{PIE|rō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьr/ъr}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|}
==Phonology==
===Sounds===
====Consonants====
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.


! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
|- align=center
! style="width: 66px; " |
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
! style="width: 66px; " |
|}
! style="width: 66px; " |Labial
 
! style="width: 66px; " |Alveolar
===Consonants===
! style="width: 66px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 66px; " colspan=2|Velar
! style="width: 66px; " |Pharyngeal
! style="width: 66px; " |Glottal
|-
! rowspan=2 | Nasal
! Voiceless
| *m̥
| *n̥
|
|
|
|  
|
|-
! Voiced
| *m
| *n
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive
! Voiceless
| *p
| *t
|
| *k
| *kʷ
|
| *ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| *b
| *d
|
| *g
| *gʷ
|
|
|-
! Aspirated-
| *p<sup>h</sup>
| *t<sup>h</sup>
|
| *k<sup>h</sup>
| *kʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
! Aspirated+
| *b<sup>h</sup>
| *d<sup>h</sup>
|
| *g<sup>h</sup>
| *gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
! Ejective
| *p’
| *t’
|
| *k’
| *kʷ’
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
! Voiceless
|
| *s
|
| *x
| (*xʷ)
| *ħ
| *h
|-
! Voiced
|
| *z
|
| *ɣ
| (*ɣʷ)
| *ʕ
| *ɦ
|-
! rowspan=2 | Vibrant
! Voiceless
|
| *r̥
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
| *r
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Lateral
! Voiceless
|
| *l̥
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
| *l
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Approximant
! Voiceless
|
|
| *j̊
|
| *ẘ
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
|
| *j
|
| *w
|  
|
|}


===Vowels===
====Vowels====
===Phonotactics===
 
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
====Pitch Accent====
===Morphophonology===
 
===Meta-Segmentals===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
===Supra-Segmentals===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
==Taxology==
 
===Desinencies===
 
====Affixes====
 
====Roots====
 
====Clitics====
 
===X===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
===X===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
==Semantics==
 
===Phememes===
 
====Phones====
 
====Morphemes====
 
====Phonemes====
 
===Tagmemes===
 
====Semes====
 
====Taxemes====
 
====Sememes====
 
===Prosodemes===
 
====Glossemes====
 
====Noemes====
 
====Oidemes====


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
Veno
594

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/389374"