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Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). | Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). | ||
It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. Many of the | It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. Many of the founders were from a number of East Asian countries, and used English as a common language while bringing their own languages with them. However the community was isolated, and within a few generations their English had developed into a creole, influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language. | ||
It then diverged into a number of widely divergent dialects (technology regressed, and groups of speakers were cut off from one another), followed by another period of koineisation when enough technology was re-invented for speakers of different dialects to be able to contact one other again. This koine was called Kämpya, and spread to many other parts of the continent, aided by the growth of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect. | It then diverged into a number of widely divergent dialects (technology regressed, and groups of speakers were cut off from one another), followed by another period of koineisation when enough technology was re-invented for speakers of different dialects to be able to contact one other again. This koine was called Kämpya, and spread to many other parts of the continent, aided by the growth of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect. | ||
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In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice). | In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice). | ||
==Typological Influences== | |||
The contrast between alienable and inalienable possession was not present in any of the major languages of the initial settlers. However it has developed into an areal feature and is now found in most of the languages on the continent. | |||
A similar situation happened with evidentiality, although its spread is much more restricted, only being found in the languages spoken along the Ross Sea coast. In this area, high mountains and long fjords meant that people lived in small, isolated communities. In such communities, where everyone knew one another, gossip could be highly destructive. This context favoured the development of evidentiality. | |||
The lack of marking for number and tense / aspect is common in Antarctican languages from areas where a large portion of the founding population spoke Mainland East / SE Asian languages (which lack these features). | |||
Topic-comment and wh-in-situ word order came into Kämpya through similar means (it is very common in East and SE Asia). | |||
Ergativity came into Antarctica from speakers of Austronesian languages from Eastern Indonesia, the Pacific and the Philippines, three areas which were among the first to be severely affected by climate change, and therefore among the first migrants to the south. some degree of ergativity is a continent-wide areal feature. In the case of Kämpya, the English possessive 's began to be used to mark ergative subjects. By analogy, possessive pronouns then began to be used as ergative pronouns e.g. /jó/ - 2PS.ERG from English "your". Later, a different suffix /ji/ began to be used to mark possession. | |||
Clusivity also spread throughout Antarctica by similar means, although many languages (including Kämpya) ended up conflating the first person singular and the first person exclusive plural. | |||
Applicative constructions also entered Kämpya through influence from Austronesian languages such as Tagalog. However they did not spread as widely throughout the continent. | |||
Marking pronouns with pre-verbal clitics originated in Spanish (indeed Kämpya's accusative pronouns are borrowed from Spanish). This has spread across Antarctica as an areal feature (except that in some languages, they are prefixes rather than clitics). | |||
The vast majority of the founders spoke pro-drop languages (Burmese, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese etc.) so it is perhaps no surprise that Kämpya has become pro-drop (apart from the pre-verbal clitics). | |||
Kämpya borrowed a number of its postpositions from Burmese e.g. locative /ka/. Other postpositions were originally English prepositions, but switched to be postpositions under the influence of languages such as Burmese and Japanese. | |||
Placing postpositional phrases before the verb was borrowed from Chinese (perhaps also helped by the fact that many other founders spoke verb-final languages such as Burmese and Japanese). | |||
Anti-logophoricity is an areal feature that developed along the Ross Sea coast after settlement. | |||
Marking restrictiveness on adjectives by word order originated in Spanish, but became more extensive after settlement. Marking restrictiveness on adjectives (in some way, not necessarily by word order) is an Antarctic areal feature. | |||
The complicated demonstrative system (depending on whether the object is uphill or downhill from the speaker) is an areal feature of the Ross Sea coast. Like most of the areas where such a system has developed, this area is very mountainous. | |||
Using a separate verb for locational predication (in the case of Kämpya /éʔ/, which is cognate to English "at") is an areal feature of East and SE Asia. | |||
Using a postposition to form a comparative construction is another areal feature of Asia which has found its way into Kämpya. | |||
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In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong. | In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong. | ||
/ŋ/ cannot occur word-initially. | |||
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In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ]. | In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ]. | ||
If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name" is pronounced [nâḭⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the | If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name" is pronounced [nâḭⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the alienable genitive clitic /jì/ to form /nâḭm=jì/ - "of the name", which is pronounced [nâḭmjì]. | ||
===Stress and Phonation=== | ===Stress and Phonation=== | ||
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If /h/ occurs after vowels with harsh phonation, it is pronounced as a voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] e.g. /zwéˈmâ̰h/ - "to report", is pronounced [zwéˈmâ̰ʢ]. | If /h/ occurs after vowels with harsh phonation, it is pronounced as a voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] e.g. /zwéˈmâ̰h/ - "to report", is pronounced [zwéˈmâ̰ʢ]. | ||
Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic / | Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /ji/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g. | ||
/à̤h= | /à̤h=jì/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çì] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]). | ||
/dáʔh= | /dáʔh=jì/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçì]. | ||
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| Kämpya || ˈkà̤mpjà || ˈkà̤mpjá || ˈkǎ̤mpjà | | Kämpya || ˈkà̤mpjà || ˈkà̤mpjá || ˈkǎ̤mpjà | ||
|- | |- | ||
| guardian || | | guardian || ˈsʰíʔtà || ˈsʰìʔtá || ˈsʰíʔtà | ||
|- | |- | ||
| sister || | | sister || ˈsʰì̤tà || ˈsʰì̤tá || ˈsʰǐ̤tà | ||
|- | |- | ||
| alone || áˈlâṵn || áˈlàṵn || àˈláṵn | | alone || áˈlâṵn || áˈlàṵn || àˈláṵn | ||
|- | |- | ||
| alone + Genitive clitic / | | alone + Genitive clitic /ji/ || áˈlâṵn=jì || áˈlàṵn=jí || àˈláṵn=jì | ||
|- | |- | ||
| question || à̤h || à̤h || ǎ̤h | | question || à̤h || à̤h || ǎ̤h | ||
|- | |- | ||
| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h= | | question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jì || à̤h=jí || ǎ̤h=jì | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Sound Correspondences with English=== | ===Sound Correspondences with English=== | ||
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====Phonation==== | ====Phonation==== | ||
Contrastive phonation developed on stressed vowels depending on the following consonants. Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel e.g. / | Contrastive phonation developed on stressed vowels depending on the following consonants. Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel e.g. /ˈsʰì̤tà/ - "sister". Glottalised phonation developed whenever there was a voiceless stop after a stressed vowel e.g. /áʔp/ - "rise" (from English "up". In other cases (e.g. when there was a voiced stop after a stressed vowel) the syllable received harsh phonation. | ||
====Consonants==== | ====Consonants==== | ||
Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. / | Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. /tʰáp/ - "above" (from English "top") | ||
/s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. / | /s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. /sʰḛ̂n/ - "heaven" (from English "ascend") vs. /èˈsóʔt/ - "exotic.DESC" (the /k/ that used to precede the /s/ was lost, but not before blocking that aspiration that would otherwise have occurred on an /s/ in a stressed syllable). | ||
Clusters of /s/ + Nasal became voiceless nasals e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow", /m̥òṵ/ - "small.RESTR". | Clusters of /s/ + Nasal became voiceless nasals e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow", /m̥òṵ/ - "small.RESTR". | ||
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/ʍ/ re-emerged in English via spelling pronunciations, becoming Kämpya /hw/ (pronounced as [ʍ]) e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale". | /ʍ/ re-emerged in English via spelling pronunciations, becoming Kämpya /hw/ (pronounced as [ʍ]) e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale". | ||
English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". | English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". The exception to this was when it was clustered with /r/, in which case it became /hw/ e.g. /hwám/ - "from". | ||
English /v/ became /bw/ before a vowel e.g. /ˈbwḛ̂lì/ - "valley" | English /v/ became /bw/ before a vowel e.g. /ˈbwḛ̂lì/ - "valley" | ||
English /r/ became either /w/ or /zw/ e.g. / | English /r/ became either /w/ or /zw/ e.g. /ˈzwéʔp/ - quickly (from English "rapid"), /ˈpʰò̤wè/ - "forest". | ||
English post-alveolar consonants became sequences of alveolar consonants + /j/ e.g. /báˈsjàʔp/- "beat" (from English "bash up") | English post-alveolar consonants became sequences of alveolar consonants + /j/ e.g. /báˈsjàʔp/- "beat" (from English "bash up") | ||
Lenition occurred of obstruents after historically long vowels (Kämpya lost its phonemic vowel length contrast). Labial obstruents lenited to /ⱱ/ e.g. /pʰ/, /p/, /b/, /f/, /v/ became /ⱱ/ e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "laugh". Coronal consonants lenited to /ɾ/ e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". Dorsal consonants lenited to /h/ e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness". | Lenition occurred of obstruents after historically long vowels (Kämpya lost its phonemic vowel length contrast). Labial obstruents lenited to /ⱱ/ e.g. /pʰ/, /p/, /b/, /f/, /v/ became /ⱱ/ e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "laugh". Coronal consonants lenited to /ɾ/ e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". Dorsal consonants lenited to /h/ e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness". | ||
Clusters of Stop + /t/ were simplified to /t/ e.g. /ˈdóʔtà/ - "doctor". | |||
Except in the above cases, /t/ was lost word finally e.g. /béiʔ/ - "belt". | |||
Word final alveolar affricates became stops e.g. /ˈbwḭ̂d/ - "bridge". | |||
/l/ was lost when not before a vowel e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool". | /l/ was lost when not before a vowel e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool". | ||
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The vowel system derives from Australian English, although in many cases spelling pronunciations are used rather than the actual Australian English pronunciation. Since colonisation of Antarctica, it has undergone a number of sound changes: | The vowel system derives from Australian English, although in many cases spelling pronunciations are used rather than the actual Australian English pronunciation. Since colonisation of Antarctica, it has undergone a number of sound changes: | ||
# The vowel in TRAP and MARRY underwent a three-way split. In untressed syllables, it became /a/. In stressed syllables, it underwent the bad-lad split, with the long version becoming /ai/ and causing lenition of the following consonant e.g. /bàḭɾ/ - "bad.REST", while the short version became /e/ e.g. / | # The vowel in TRAP and MARRY underwent a three-way split. In untressed syllables, it became /a/. In stressed syllables, it underwent the bad-lad split, with the long version becoming /ai/ and causing lenition of the following consonant e.g. /bàḭɾ/ - "bad.REST", while the short version became /e/ e.g. /éʔ/ - "to be at". | ||
# The vowel in BATH, PALM and START (Australian English is non-rhotic) became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /aː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /a/ (Kämpya lost phonemic vowel length) e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". | # The vowel in BATH, PALM and START (Australian English is non-rhotic) became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /aː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /a/ (Kämpya lost phonemic vowel length) e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". | ||
# The vowel in NURSE merged into the above vowel e.g. /nà̤ɾ/ - "nurse". | # The vowel in NURSE merged into the above vowel e.g. /nà̤ɾ/ - "nurse". | ||
# The vowel in LOT, CLOTH and HOT became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /o/ in stressed syllables e.g. / | # The vowel in LOT, CLOTH and HOT became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /o/ in stressed syllables e.g. /ˈóʔpà/ - "opposite". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /bôṵ/ - "bowl". | ||
# The vowel in THOUGHT and NORTH became /o/ in unstressed syllables, and /oː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /o/ e.g. /pʰò̰/ - "four". However, before /u/ it became /ou/ e.g. /m̥óṵ/ - "small.DESC". | # The vowel in THOUGHT and NORTH became /o/ in unstressed syllables, and /oː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /o/ e.g. /pʰò̰/ - "four". However, before /u/ it became /ou/ e.g. /m̥óṵ/ - "small.DESC". | ||
# The vowel in KIT became /i/ e.g. / | # The vowel in KIT became /i/ e.g. /ˈbíʔ/ - "bite" (from English "bit"). However, before /l/ it became /ju/ e.g. /hjṵ̂/ - "hill". | ||
# The vowel in HEAT usually became /ei/ e.g. /déiʔp/ - "deeply". However, before /j/ it became /e/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". And before /l/, it became /i/ e.g. /pʰḭ̂lìŋ/ - "display of emotions" (from English "feeling"). | # The vowel in HEAT usually became /ei/ e.g. /déiʔp/ - "deeply". However, before /j/ it became /e/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". And before /l/, it became /i/ e.g. /pʰḭ̂lìŋ/ - "display of emotions" (from English "feeling"). | ||
# The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. / | # The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. /béiʔ/ - "belt". | ||
# The vowel in SQUARE and MARY became /e/ in unstressed syllables, and /eː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /e/ e.g. /kʰḛ̂/ - "hospital patient" (from English "care") | # The vowel in SQUARE and MARY became /e/ in unstressed syllables, and /eː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /e/ e.g. /kʰḛ̂/ - "hospital patient" (from English "care") | ||
# The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. / | # The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. /sʰâ̰n/ - "son". However, before /l/, it became /au/ e.g. /kâṵ/ - "skull". | ||
# The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. / | # The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. /pʰúʔ/ - "foot". | ||
# The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose | # The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose". However, before another vowel, it became /e/ e.g. /sʰḛ̂wà/ - "sewer". In stressed syllables before /l/, it became /u/ e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool" | ||
# The vowel in FACE normally became /ai/ e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name". However, before /l/ it became /aju/ e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale". | # The vowel in FACE normally became /ai/ e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name". However, before /l/ it became /aju/ e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale". | ||
# The vowel in PRICE became /ou/ in stressed syllables, and /ai/ in unstressed syllables e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price", / | # The vowel in PRICE became /ou/ in stressed syllables, and /ai/ in unstressed syllables e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price", /ˈḭ̂mwài/ - "invitation" (from an initial stressed derived form of "invite"). However, before /l/ it became /oju/ in stressed syllables, and /aju/ elsewhere e.g. /tʰô̰jù/ - "tile". | ||
# The vowel in CHOICE became /ou/ e.g. /tʰjòi̤/ - "choice", except before /l/ when it became /oju/ e.g. /ˈbô̰jù/ - "boil". | # The vowel in CHOICE became /ou/ e.g. /tʰjòi̤/ - "choice", except before /l/ when it became /oju/ e.g. /ˈbô̰jù/ - "hot spring" (from English "boil"). | ||
# The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. / | # The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, in a stressed syllable before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /kʰôṵlà/ - "(Coca-)Cola". | ||
# The vowel in MOUTH became /ei/ in a stressed syllable, and /au/ in an unstressed syllable e.g. /mèi̤/ - "mouth". | # The vowel in MOUTH became /ei/ in a stressed syllable, and /au/ in an unstressed syllable e.g. /mèi̤/ - "mouth". | ||
# The vowel in NEAR became /i/ in unstressed syllables, and /iː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /i/ e.g. /pʰì̤ɾ/ - "fierce". | # The vowel in NEAR became /i/ in unstressed syllables, and /iː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /i/ e.g. /pʰì̤ɾ/ - "fierce". | ||
# As a very general rule, schwa became /a/, however in a lot of cases it developed into another vowel, being influenced by spelling e.g. / | # As a very general rule, schwa became /a/, however in a lot of cases it developed into another vowel, being influenced by spelling e.g. /éˈléʔt/ - "to vote" (from English "elect"). | ||
==Pronouns== | ==Pronouns== | ||
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| Before a consonant || ái || wéi || jéi || bá | | Before a consonant || ái || wéi || jéi || bá | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Before a vowel || | | Before a vowel || áj- || wéj- || jéw- || báj- | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Emphatic || òṵ || wèḭ || jèḭ || bà̰ | | Emphatic || òṵ || wèḭ || jèḭ || bà̰ | ||
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As you can see above, the emphatic forms all have Low Tone with Harsh Phonation (i.e. belong to Tone Class 2), while all the other forms have High Tone with no phonation (i.e. modal phonation). | As you can see above, the emphatic forms all have Low Tone with Harsh Phonation (i.e. belong to Tone Class 2), while all the other forms have High Tone with no phonation (i.e. modal phonation). | ||
===Accusative Pronouns=== | ===Accusative Pronouns=== | ||
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! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person !! 3PS !! Reflexive !! Interrogative | ! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person !! 3PS !! Reflexive !! Interrogative | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Before a consonant || mí || | | Before a consonant || mí || lé || té || swí || sé || ké | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Before a vowel || mj- || | | Before a vowel || mj- || lés- || ét- || síw- || és- || ék- | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Emphatic || mḭ̀ || | | Emphatic || mḭ̀ || lè̤ || tḛ̀ || swḭ̀ || sḛ̀ || kḛ̀ | ||
|} | |} | ||
The emphatic forms are also used with postpositions e.g. /mḭ̀= | The emphatic forms are also used with postpositions e.g. /mḭ̀=hwám/ - "from me". | ||
===Genitive / Ergative Pronouns=== | ===Genitive / Ergative Pronouns=== | ||
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! !! 1PS Excl. !! 1PS Incl. !! 2PS !! 3PS Prox. !! 3PS Obv. !! Interrogative | ! !! 1PS Excl. !! 1PS Incl. !! 2PS !! 3PS Prox. !! 3PS Obv. !! Interrogative | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Before a consonant (Inalienable) || mái || áu || jó || | | Before a consonant (Inalienable) || mái || áu || jó || ðé || ðí || héi | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Before a vowel (Inalienable) || máj- || áw- || | | Before a vowel (Inalienable) || máj- || áw- || józw- || ðézw- || ðj- || héw- | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Alienable || môṵ || ˈḛ̂wà || jô̰ || | | Alienable / Ergative || môṵ || ˈḛ̂wà || jô̰ || ðḛ̂- || ðjíʔ || hèi̤ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Emphatic || mòṵ || ˈḛ̀wá || bwò̤ || swḭ̀ || ðjìʔ || hèi̤ | |||
| Emphatic || mòṵ || ˈḛ̀wá || bwò̤ || swḭ̀ || | |||
|} | |} | ||
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/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèm/ | ||
guardian enemy | guardian enemy | ||
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/jéi | /jéi ˈsʰíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsʰíʔtà] | ||
2PS.INTR guardian | 2PS.INTR guardian | ||
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====With Postpositional Phrases==== | ====With Postpositional Phrases==== | ||
If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí= | If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say: | ||
/ˈbwḛ̀lí= | /ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/ | ||
valley=from depart enemy | valley=from depart enemy | ||
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or | or | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí= | /ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
enemy valley=from depart | enemy valley=from depart | ||
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To say "A is located at / in / on etc. B", Kämpya uses the verb / | To say "A is located at / in / on etc. B", Kämpya uses the verb /éʔ/ and the locative clitic /ká/ e.g. | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=ká | /ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=ká éʔ/ | ||
enemy valley=LOC be.at | enemy valley=LOC be.at | ||
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Note that / | Note that /éʔ/ cannot be used as a copula (to say something is something else). As discussed previously, in such a case, no verb is used at all. | ||
====With Adverbs==== | ====With Adverbs==== | ||
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Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g. | Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g. | ||
/déˈpʰáʔɾ | /déˈpʰáʔɾ zwéʔp ˈjě̤tài ˈḛ̂nèm/ | ||
depart fast yesterday enemy | depart fast yesterday enemy | ||
The enemy departed quickly yesterday. | The enemy departed quickly yesterday. | ||
====With Pronouns==== | ====With Pronouns==== | ||
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However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt= | However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=hwám déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say: | ||
/ˈbwḛ̀lí= | /ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
valley=from 2PS depart | valley=from 2PS depart | ||
You are setting off from the valley. | You are setting off from the valley. | ||
===Transitive Sentences=== | ===Transitive Sentences=== | ||
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In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g. | In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard | dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
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However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g. | However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g. | ||
/kʰjâṵ=ɾù | /kʰjâṵ=ɾù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
cow=ERG bite lizard | cow=ERG bite lizard | ||
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The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g. | The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù pʰò̤wé=ká ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | ||
It was the dog that bit the lizard in the forest. | It was the dog that bit the lizard in the forest. | ||
====Topicalisation==== | ====Topicalisation==== | ||
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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/ | ||
lizard dog=ERG bite | lizard dog=ERG bite | ||
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The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | ||
/dô̰k | /dô̰k ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog bite lizard | dog bite lizard | ||
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The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù | The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese. | ||
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k | Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k ˈbíʔ/ or anything like that. | ||
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The (alienable) genitive pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs e.g. | The (alienable) genitive pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs e.g. | ||
/jô̰ | /jô̰ ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ERG bite lizard | 2PS.ERG bite lizard | ||
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As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g. | As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd jô̰ | /ˈlḭ̂zàd jô̰ ˈbíʔ/ | ||
lizard 2PS.ERG bite | lizard 2PS.ERG bite | ||
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/ | /pʰò̤wé=ká jô̰ ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
forest=LOC 2PS.ERG bite lizard | forest=LOC 2PS.ERG bite lizard | ||
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/dô̰k | /dô̰k té=ˈbíʔ/ | ||
dog 2PS.ACC=bite | dog 2PS.ACC=bite | ||
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or | or | ||
/ | /té=ˈbíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
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jéi=swí= | /jéi=swí=ˈbíʔ/ | ||
2PS.INTR=3PS.ACC=bite | 2PS.INTR=3PS.ACC=bite | ||
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It would be ungrammatical to say */jô̰ swí= | It would be ungrammatical to say */jô̰ swí=bíʔ/. | ||
====Reciprocal Voice==== | ====Reciprocal Voice==== | ||
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. / | This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈbíʔ/ - "to bite" -> /bíˈbíʔ/ - "to bite each other". | ||
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /péiʔk/ - "to speak" -> /péiˈpéiʔk/ - "to speak to each other". | However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /péiʔk/ - "to speak" -> /péiˈpéiʔk/ - "to speak to each other". | ||
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It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g. | It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
bite lizard | bite lizard | ||
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/ˈlḭ̂zàd | /ˈlḭ̂zàd ˈbíʔ/ | ||
lizard bite | lizard bite | ||
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To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g. | To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g. | ||
/dô̰k θú= | /dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite | dog ANTIP=bite | ||
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The deleted object can be re-introduced | The deleted object can be re-introduced using the dative postposition, /-gó/ (which changes the noun into Tone Class 2). These nouns are re-introduced into the same syntactic "slot" as postpositional objects e.g. | ||
/dô̰k θú= | /dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ / | ||
dog ANTIP=bite | dog lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite | ||
The dog bit the lizard. | The dog bit the lizard. | ||
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At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said: | At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said: | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard | dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
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However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different: | However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different: | ||
/dô̰k θú= | /dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite | dog lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite flee | ||
The dog bit the lizard and (the dog) ran away. | The dog bit the lizard and (the dog) ran away. | ||
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vs. | vs. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard flee | dog=ERG bite lizard flee | ||
The dog bit the lizard and the lizard ran away. | The dog bit the lizard and the lizard ran away. | ||
===Ditransitive Sentences=== | ===Ditransitive Sentences=== | ||
For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /- | For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ta/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog | guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog | ||
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or | or | ||
/dô̰k | /dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p/ | ||
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | ||
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The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g. | The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
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It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g. | It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà bàṵn=tá dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/ | ||
guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give | guardian bone=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give | ||
The guardian gave the bone to the dog. | The guardian gave the bone to the dog. | ||
===With Postpositional Phrases=== | ===With Postpositional Phrases=== | ||
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Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g. | Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | ||
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=====Clitics beginning with /t/ and /p/===== | =====Clitics beginning with /t/ and /p/===== | ||
Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic / | Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ta/ becomes /ɾa/ e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà gwà̤=ɾá gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
guardian grass=SEC give dog | guardian grass=SEC give dog | ||
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Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥èʔ= | Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥èʔ=ɾá/, as in: | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà n̥ḛ̀=ɾá dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/ | ||
guardian snare=SEC ANTIP=give | guardian snare=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give | ||
Literally "the guardian gave the snare to the dog", but "give a snare" could also be translated as "use a snare to catch". | Literally "the guardian gave the snare to the dog", but "give a snare" could also be translated as "use a snare to catch". | ||
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The /k/ here lenits to /h/ and triggers deaspiration in exactly the same way as /g/. However, if the monophthong had harsh voice, it changes to be glottalised e.g. from /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", if we add the locative clitic /-ka/, the result is /nèʔ=há/ - "at the snare". | The /k/ here lenits to /h/ and triggers deaspiration in exactly the same way as /g/. However, if the monophthong had harsh voice, it changes to be glottalised e.g. from /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", if we add the locative clitic /-ka/, the result is /nèʔ=há/ - "at the snare". | ||
====With Pronouns==== | ====With Pronouns==== | ||
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/bàṵn= | /bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká jô̰ gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog | bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog | ||
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/jô̰ bàṵn= | /jô̰ bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | 2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | ||
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This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ bàṵn= | This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ bàṵn=tá/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest". | ||
=====With Postpositions===== | =====With Postpositions===== | ||
The emphatic forms of the accusative pronouns are used with a postposition (e.g. the secundative / | The emphatic forms of the accusative pronouns are used with a postposition (e.g. the secundative /tá/). However, these pronouns trigger the same sandhi rules discussed before (changing the phonation on the vowel to glottalised), and leniting the postposition to. Here is a list of the pronouns when used with the secundative postposition: | ||
1st Person Exclusive - /mìʔ= | 1st Person Exclusive - /mìʔ=ɾá/ | ||
1st Person Inclusive - / | 1st Person Inclusive - /lè̤=ɾá/ | ||
2nd Person - / | 2nd Person - /tèʔ=ɾá/ | ||
3rd Person - /swìʔ= | 3rd Person - /swìʔ=ɾá/ | ||
Reflexive - /sèʔ= | Reflexive - /sèʔ=ɾá/ | ||
===Applicative Voice=== | ===Applicative Voice=== | ||
To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the | To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the postpositonal object "slot" in the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /=gó/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence: | ||
/ˈdô̰k=zù | /ˈdô̰k=zù pʰò̤wé=ká ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | ||
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we can apply an applicative transformation to get: | we can apply an applicative transformation to get: | ||
/ | /pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù lḭ̀zád=góˈbíʔ=kà/ | ||
forest dog=ERG bite=LOC | forest dog=ERG lizard=DAT bite=LOC | ||
In the forest, the dog bit the lizard. | In the forest, the dog bit the lizard. | ||
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As another example, the sentence | As another example, the sentence | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí= | /ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
enemy valley=from depart | enemy valley=from depart | ||
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becomes the following: | becomes the following: | ||
/ˈbwḛ̂lì | /ˈbwḛ̂lì ˈè̤ném=gó déˈpáʔɾ=hwàm/ | ||
valley depart=from | valley enemy=DAT depart=from | ||
From the valley, the enemy departed. | From the valley, the enemy departed. | ||
Note here the tone change from /ˈkʰòʔnát/ (in a postpositional phrase and thus Tone Class 2) to /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ (in Tone Class 1 like most nouns). The same thing happened with the word for "forest" changing from / | Note here the tone change from /ˈkʰòʔnát/ (in a postpositional phrase and thus Tone Class 2) to /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ (in Tone Class 1 like most nouns). The same thing happened with the word for "forest" changing from /pʰò̤wé/ to /pʰò̤wè/. | ||
Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g. | Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g. | ||
/dô̰k | /dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p/ | ||
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | ||
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becomes | becomes | ||
/bâṵn | /bâṵn ˈsʰíʔtà=zù dò̰k=góˈgḭ̂p=tá/ | ||
bone guardian=ERG give=SEC | bone guardian=ERG dog=DAT give=SEC | ||
The bone was given to the dog by the guardian. | The bone was given to the dog by the guardian. | ||
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When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to | When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to | ||
/dô̰k | /dô̰k pʰò̤wé=ká té=ˈbíʔ/ | ||
dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite | dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite | ||
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we get | we get | ||
/ | /pʰò̤wè dò̰k=gó té=ˈbíʔ=kà/ | ||
forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC | forest dog=DAT 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC | ||
In the forest, the dog bit you. | In the forest, the dog bit you. | ||
Notice that when the postpositions / | Notice that when the postpositions /hwam/, /ka/ and /ti/ attach to a noun, they have High Tone, since postpositional phrases are in Tone Class 2. However, when they attach to a verb, they have has Low Tone, since verbs are in Tone Class 1. | ||
This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g. | This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g. | ||
/ | /pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù lḭ̀zád=gó bíʔ ˈˈjě̤tài=kà/ | ||
forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC | forest dog=ERG lizard=DAT bite yesterday.ADV=LOC | ||
In the forest, the dog bit the lizard. | In the forest, the dog bit the lizard. | ||
==Noun Phrases== | ==Noun Phrases== | ||
| Line 903: | Line 919: | ||
When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g. | When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈzwèʔp dô̰k/ | ||
fast.REST dog | fast.REST dog | ||
| Line 912: | Line 928: | ||
Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g. | Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g. | ||
/dô̰k | /dô̰k ˈzwéʔp/ | ||
dog fast.DESC | dog fast.DESC | ||
| Line 921: | Line 937: | ||
or | or | ||
/sôṵlà | /sôṵlà àˈwá̰/ | ||
sun yellow.DESC | sun yellow.DESC | ||
| Line 928: | Line 944: | ||
In the last case, it would never make any sense to say / | In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /áˈwà̰ sôṵlà/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns. | ||
===Articles=== | ===Articles=== | ||
There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs / | There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /tí-/ before a consonant and /ít-/ before a vowel e.g. | ||
/ | /tí=dô̰k/ | ||
INDEF=dog | INDEF=dog | ||
| Line 943: | Line 958: | ||
/ | /ít=ˈḛ̂nèm/ | ||
INDEF=enemy | INDEF=enemy | ||
| Line 952: | Line 967: | ||
Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some enemies". | Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some enemies". | ||
It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one / | It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /tìʔ/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /tìʔ/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch. | ||
Compare: | Compare: | ||
/ | /tí=dô̰k/ | ||
INDEF=dog | INDEF=dog | ||
| Line 965: | Line 980: | ||
with | with | ||
/ | /tìʔ dô̰k/ | ||
one dog | one dog | ||
| Line 972: | Line 987: | ||
The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */ | The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */tí=tìʔ dô̰k/ is ungrammatical. | ||
However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g. | However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g. | ||
/ | /ít=áˈwà̰ dô̰k/ | ||
INDEF=yellow.REST dog | INDEF=yellow.REST dog | ||
a yellow dog | a yellow dog | ||
===Demonstratives=== | ===Demonstratives=== | ||
| Line 990: | Line 1,004: | ||
It also uses tone to distinguish pronominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' is a cat") from adnominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' cat is here"). It also uses tone to make a further distinction in adnominal demonstratives depending on whether they are describing a place, or something else. | It also uses tone to distinguish pronominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' is a cat") from adnominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' cat is here"). It also uses tone to make a further distinction in adnominal demonstratives depending on whether they are describing a place (in which case they are clitics), or something else. | ||
For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place. | For example "this mountain" is /dá=ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place. | ||
| Line 1,009: | Line 1,023: | ||
|} | |} | ||
*/hóu-/ has the allomorph /*hów-/ before a vowel. Before a word containing an aspirated consonant, a voiceless nasal or another /h/, the initial /h/ is dropped e.g. /óu= | */hóu-/ has the allomorph /*hów-/ before a vowel. Before a word containing an aspirated consonant, a voiceless nasal or another /h/, the initial /h/ is dropped e.g. /óu=pʰò̤wè/ - "that forest", not */hóu=pʰò̤wè/. Under similar conditions, the initial /h/ in /hlàn/ is lost, as well as the aspiration in /t(ʰ)ék/. | ||
===Possession=== | ===Possession=== | ||
| Line 1,015: | Line 1,029: | ||
Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g. | Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g. | ||
/dò̰k= | /dò̰k=jí bâṵn/ | ||
dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone | dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone | ||
| Line 1,023: | Line 1,037: | ||
While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g. | While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g. | ||
/dô̰k= | /dô̰k=jì bâṵn/ | ||
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone | dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone | ||
| Line 1,033: | Line 1,047: | ||
/dô̰k= | /dô̰k=jì dà̰ bâṵn/ | ||
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone | dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone | ||
This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone"). | This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone"). | ||
===Relative Clauses=== | ===Relative Clauses=== | ||
| Line 1,044: | Line 1,057: | ||
In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g. | In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ dô̰k áˈwâḭ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite dog flee | lizard=ERG bite dog flee | ||
| Line 1,053: | Line 1,066: | ||
Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause: | Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause: | ||
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog lizard=ERG bite flee | dog lizard=ERG bite flee | ||
| Line 1,063: | Line 1,076: | ||
/θú= | /θú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/ | ||
ANTIP=bite lizard flee | ANTIP=bite lizard flee | ||
| Line 1,072: | Line 1,085: | ||
Or in a non-restrictive relative clause: | Or in a non-restrictive relative clause: | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú= | /ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=bíʔ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
lizard ANTIP=bite flee | lizard ANTIP=bite flee | ||
| Line 1,082: | Line 1,095: | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà pʰò̤wè m̥ôṵ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small | lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small | ||
| Line 1,092: | Line 1,105: | ||
/ | /pʰò̤wè ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà m̥ôṵ/ | ||
forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small | forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small | ||
| Line 1,098: | Line 1,111: | ||
The forest, which the lizard bit it in, is small. | The forest, which the lizard bit it in, is small. | ||
==Mood/Evidentiality== | |||
While Kämpya does not mark tense or aspect, mood / evidentiality is very important (the grammar conflates the two). They are marked with a proclitic, that usually comes immediately before the verb, but can occur in many other positions. | |||
===Negative Mood=== | |||
/ | The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence | ||
/té=bíʔ dô̰k/ | |||
2PS.ACC=bite dog. | |||
You were bitten by the dog. | |||
We can say | |||
/ | /té=ná=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog | |||
You weren't bitten by the dog. | |||
You weren't bitten by the dog. | |||
as well as | as well as | ||
/ná= | /ná=té=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog | NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
| Line 1,157: | Line 1,147: | ||
and | and | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ ná=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog | ||
| Line 1,164: | Line 1,154: | ||
However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g | However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g té=bíʔ/ is ungrammatical. | ||
As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g. | As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g. | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog | ||
| Line 1,179: | Line 1,169: | ||
And adverbs e.g. | And adverbs e.g. | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ nà=déiʔp dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog | ||
| Line 1,189: | Line 1,179: | ||
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | ||
/ | /té=náw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog | 2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog | ||
You weren't abandoned by the dog. | You weren't abandoned by the dog. | ||
===Necessitative Mood=== | ===Necessitative Mood=== | ||
This is used to indicate that something ought to / is required to happen. It is indicated using the proclitic / | This is used to indicate that something ought to / is required to happen. It is indicated using the proclitic /ga/, or /gat/ before a vowel (from English "gotta") e.g. | ||
/ái= | /ái=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart | 1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart | ||
| Line 1,211: | Line 1,200: | ||
/wéi= | /wéi=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
1PS.INCL=NEC=depart | 1PS.INCL=NEC=depart | ||
| Line 1,221: | Line 1,210: | ||
/jéi= | /jéi=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
2PS=NEC=depart | 2PS=NEC=depart | ||
| Line 1,228: | Line 1,217: | ||
Like other mood particles, / | Like other mood particles, /ga/ does not need to attach to a verb. It can attach to other parts of speech depending on the focus of the speaker e.g. | ||
/jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ | /jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ gà=ˈzwéʔp/ | ||
2PS=depart NEC=fast | 2PS=depart NEC=fast | ||
| Line 1,242: | Line 1,231: | ||
Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g. | Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g. | ||
/jéi= | /jéi=gát=áˈlàṵn nâ̰/ | ||
2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH | 2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH | ||
| Line 1,251: | Line 1,240: | ||
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs | This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs | ||
/jô̰ | /jô̰ gá=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | ||
| Line 1,260: | Line 1,249: | ||
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g. | It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g. | ||
/dô̰k jô̰ | /dô̰k jô̰ gá=bìʔ nâ̰/ | ||
dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH | dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH | ||
| Line 1,269: | Line 1,258: | ||
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g. | Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà=zù gá=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/ | ||
guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | ||
The guardian must not bite the dog. | The guardian must not bite the dog. | ||
===Optative Mood=== | ===Optative Mood=== | ||
| Line 1,288: | Line 1,276: | ||
/ | /té=wáná=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog | ||
| Line 1,295: | Line 1,283: | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ wáná=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog | 2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog | ||
| Line 1,302: | Line 1,290: | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog | ||
| Line 1,311: | Line 1,299: | ||
===Conditional Mood=== | ===Conditional Mood=== | ||
This is used for situations which may not necessarily come true / have true, but are dependent on something else. It is marked with the proclitic /kau/ (or /kaw- before a vowel) e.g. | This is used for situations which may not necessarily come true / have true, but are dependent on something else. It is marked with the proclitic /kau/ (or /kaw- before a vowel). The origin of this proclitic is the Thai particle /kɔ̂ː/ e.g. | ||
| Line 1,321: | Line 1,309: | ||
/ái=déˈpʰáʔɾ kò= | /ái=déˈpʰáʔɾ kò=ˈzwéʔpìd/ | ||
1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast | 1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast | ||
| Line 1,340: | Line 1,328: | ||
===Hypothetical Mood=== | ===Hypothetical Mood=== | ||
The proclitic / | The proclitic /pʰí/ (/ípʰ/ before a vowel) is used for hypothetical and counterfactual situations. It often corresponds to cases where English would use "if" (which it is indeed cognate to) e.g. | ||
/jéi= | /jéi=pí=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart | 2PS.INTR=HYP=depart | ||
| Line 1,353: | Line 1,341: | ||
/jéi= | /jéi=pí=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/ | ||
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone | 2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone | ||
If you leave, I / we (not including you) will be alone. | If you leave, I / we (not including you) will be alone. | ||
Notice in both of the above sentences, Grassman's law has resulted in a loss of aspiration on the prefix, so /pʰí/ becomes /pí/ | |||
| Line 1,374: | Line 1,365: | ||
===Reportative Evidential=== | ===Reportative Evidential=== | ||
If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic / | If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /sʰái/ (/sʰáj/ before a vowel) is used. This is etymologically related to English "say" e.g. | ||
/dô̰k | /dô̰k sʰáj=áˈlâṵn/ | ||
dog REP=alone | dog REP=alone | ||
| Line 1,383: | Line 1,374: | ||
/áˈlâṵn | /áˈlâṵn sʰái=dô̰k/ | ||
alone REP=dog | alone REP=dog | ||
| Line 1,392: | Line 1,383: | ||
===Inferential Evidential=== | ===Inferential Evidential=== | ||
If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g. | If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel). This is etymologically related to English "guess" e.g. | ||
/dô̰k gés=áˈlâṵn/ | /dô̰k gés=áˈlâṵn/ | ||
| Line 1,403: | Line 1,394: | ||
===Assumptive Mood=== | ===Assumptive Mood=== | ||
This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic / | This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /mat/ (/mats/ before a vowel). This is etymologically related to English "does" e.g. | ||
/sôṵlà | /sôṵlà máts=áʔp/ | ||
sun ASS=rise | sun ASS=rise | ||
| Line 1,420: | Line 1,411: | ||
The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it). | The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it). | ||
===Interrogative Mood=== | ===Interrogative Mood=== | ||
This is used for polar questions (those expecting a yes/no answer). It is formed with the clitic /dú/ e.g. | This is used for polar questions (those expecting a yes/no answer). It is formed with the clitic /dú/ (etymologically related to English "do") e.g. | ||
/ | /té=dú=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
| Line 1,436: | Line 1,426: | ||
as well as | as well as | ||
/dú= | /dú=té=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog | POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
| Line 1,445: | Line 1,435: | ||
and | and | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ dú=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog | ||
| Line 1,454: | Line 1,444: | ||
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g. | Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g. | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog | ||
| Line 1,463: | Line 1,453: | ||
And adverbs e.g. | And adverbs e.g. | ||
/ | /té=bíʔ dù=déiʔp dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog | ||
| Line 1,472: | Line 1,462: | ||
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | ||
/ | /té=dúw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog | ||
| Line 1,484: | Line 1,474: | ||
A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog POLQ=bite lizard | |||
Did the dog bite the lizard? | Did the dog bite the lizard? | ||
| Line 1,504: | Line 1,494: | ||
A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog POLQ=bite lizard | |||
Did the dog bite the lizard? | Did the dog bite the lizard? | ||
B) / | B) /bíʔ/ | ||
bite | bite | ||
| Line 1,521: | Line 1,511: | ||
A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog POLQ=bite lizard | |||
Did the dog bite the lizard? | Did the dog bite the lizard? | ||
| Line 1,538: | Line 1,528: | ||
A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog POLQ=bite lizard | |||
Did the dog bite the lizard? | Did the dog bite the lizard? | ||
| Line 1,552: | Line 1,542: | ||
If the speaker believes the answer to be yes because of their experience with similar situations, or because it is general knowledge, they use the particle / | If the speaker believes the answer to be yes because of their experience with similar situations, or because it is general knowledge, they use the particle /mà̤t/ e.g. | ||
A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog POLQ=bite lizard | |||
Did the dog bite the lizard? | Did the dog bite the lizard? | ||
B) / | B) /mà̤t/ | ||
ASS | ASS | ||
| Line 1,569: | Line 1,559: | ||
If the question entails an assumption that the speaker wishes to deny the truth of, then a special particle / | If the question entails an assumption that the speaker wishes to deny the truth of, then a special particle /pàṳ/ is used e.g. | ||
| Line 1,579: | Line 1,569: | ||
B) / | B) /pàṳ/ | ||
CHALLENGE.PRESUPPOSITION | CHALLENGE.PRESUPPOSITION | ||
| Line 1,589: | Line 1,579: | ||
A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog POLQ=bite lizard | |||
Did the dog bite the lizard? | Did the dog bite the lizard? | ||
| Line 1,601: | Line 1,591: | ||
I don't know either. | I don't know either. | ||
==Wh-Questions== | ==Wh-Questions== | ||
| Line 1,617: | Line 1,605: | ||
or | or | ||
/ˈbwḛ̀lí= | /ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám bá=ˈdéˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart | Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart | ||
| Line 1,624: | Line 1,612: | ||
/ | /hwéi=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
Q.ERG=bite lizard | Q.ERG=bite lizard | ||
| Line 1,631: | Line 1,619: | ||
/ké= | /ké=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
Q.ACC=bite lizard | Q.ACC=bite lizard | ||
| Line 1,638: | Line 1,626: | ||
/ | /ˈsʰíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/ | ||
guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give | guardian Q.ACC=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give | ||
Who / What did the guardian give to the dog? | Who / What did the guardian give to the dog? | ||
| Line 1,647: | Line 1,635: | ||
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g. | When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g. | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀= | /ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
enemy Q.ACC=from depart | enemy Q.ACC=from depart | ||
| Line 1,654: | Line 1,642: | ||
/dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé | /dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard | ||
| Line 1,661: | Line 1,649: | ||
/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ | /dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard | ||
| Line 1,668: | Line 1,656: | ||
/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há | /dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard | ||
| Line 1,679: | Line 1,667: | ||
Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g. | Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd éi=ˈhḛ̂b/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have | dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have | ||
| Line 1,688: | Line 1,676: | ||
or | or | ||
/θú= | /ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ dô̰k éi=ˈhḛ̂b/ | ||
ANTIP=bite dog | lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite dog Q.ERG=have | ||
Whose dog bit the lizard? (literally "Who has the dog that bit the lizard?") | Whose dog bit the lizard? (literally "Who has the dog that bit the lizard?") | ||
| Line 1,699: | Line 1,687: | ||
To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g. | To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ bá=ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard | dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard | ||
| Line 1,708: | Line 1,696: | ||
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g. | However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g. | ||
/θú= | /ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ bá=dô̰k/ | ||
ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT | ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT | ||
| Line 1,715: | Line 1,703: | ||
Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù | Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ/. | ||
To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g. | To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù dò̰k=gó ˈbíʔ=kà bá=pʰò̤wè / | ||
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest | lizard=ERG dog=DAT bite=LOC which=forest | ||
Which forest did the lizard bite the dog in? | Which forest did the lizard bite the dog in? | ||
==Verb Subordination== | ==Verb Subordination== | ||
| Line 1,735: | Line 1,722: | ||
! !! Accusative !! Ergative !! Intransitive | ! !! Accusative !! Ergative !! Intransitive | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Before a consonant || nó || | | Before a consonant || nó || njá || sí | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Before a vowel || ón- || áŋ- || íts- | | Before a vowel || ón- || áŋ- || íts- | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Emphatic || nò̰ || | | Emphatic || nò̰ || njà̰ || ì̤t | ||
|} | |} | ||
For example, from the sentence: | For example, from the sentence: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè míʔnà/ | ||
mother=ERG REP=know everyone | mother=ERG REP=know everyone | ||
| Line 1,753: | Line 1,740: | ||
We can replace the object with a pronoun to get | We can replace the object with a pronoun to get | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ | /múˈhḛ̂ lé=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè/ | ||
mother 1PS.INCL.ACC=REP=know | mother 1PS.INCL.ACC=REP=know | ||
| Line 1,762: | Line 1,749: | ||
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g. | If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ nó= | /múˈhḛ̂ nó=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard | mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
| Line 1,771: | Line 1,758: | ||
If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g. | If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ nó= | /múˈhḛ̂ nó=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite | mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite | ||
| Line 1,778: | Line 1,765: | ||
It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù | It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ mùˈhḛ̂/. | ||
| Line 1,784: | Line 1,771: | ||
And another example using a postposition: | And another example using a postposition: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ= | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard | mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
| Line 1,793: | Line 1,780: | ||
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g. | And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ= | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk kʰḭ̂d wá=bàṵn=tá gá=gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog | mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog | ||
| Line 1,800: | Line 1,787: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ= | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk wá=bàṵn=tá gá=gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog | ||
The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone. | The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone. | ||
| Line 1,810: | Line 1,797: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ= | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker saw the act of giving). | The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker saw the act of giving). | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ= | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk tí=bàṵn=tá sʰái=gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog | ||
The mother told the child that she (the mother) | The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker didn't see the act of giving, but heard about it). | ||
| Line 1,830: | Line 1,817: | ||
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become: | So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ= | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
| Line 1,837: | Line 1,824: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ= | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=ˈpéiʔkðjíʔ tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the mother, either the child or someone else) | The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the mother, either the child or someone else) gave the dog a bone. | ||
===Evidentials and Reported Speech=== | |||
=== | ====Indirect Reported Speech==== | ||
In this case, when reporting what someone else has said, both clauses need to marked for evidentiality, both from the point of view of the speaker e.g. | |||
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ= | /ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾá mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart | child SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart | ||
The child told me the enemy departed (and I saw it happen too). | The child told me the enemy had departed (and I saw it happen too). | ||
| Line 1,859: | Line 1,847: | ||
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ= | /ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾá mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm sái=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
child SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart | |||
The child told me the enemy had departed (but I didn't see it, I just heard about it). | |||
====Direct Reported Speech==== | |||
In this case, there is no superordinate verb marking. The quoted speech is places at the end of the sentence, preceded by the particle /ðéʔ/ and followed by the particle /tḛ̂/ e.g. | |||
/ˈkʰḭ̂d mí=ˈpéiʔk ðéʔ ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ tḛ̂/ | |||
child 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak QUOTE enemy depart QUOTE | |||
The child told me that the enemy had departed | |||
In the above sentence, the speaker is saying the the child had used the direct evidential when reporting the enemy's departure, meaning that the speaker is reporting that the child implied that they had witnessed it themselves. This sentence conveys no information about whether or not the speaker had also seen the departure. | |||
Compare: | |||
/ˈkʰḭ̂d mí=ˈpéiʔk ðéʔ ˈḛ̂nèm sái=déˈpʰáʔɾ tḛ̂/ | |||
child 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak QUOTE enemy REP=depart QUOTE | |||
The child told me that he had heard that the enemy had departed (and not witnessed it himself). | |||
==Comparative Constructions== | ==Comparative Constructions== | ||
To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... / | To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /tʰáp/, where /tʰáp/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g. | ||
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád= | /dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=tʰáp zwéʔp/ | ||
dog.TOP lizard=above fast | dog.TOP lizard=above fast | ||
Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards"). | Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards"). | ||
[[Category:Languages]] | |||
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]] | |||