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Thangha' is another language spoken in my far future Antarctic conworld (after runaway global warming has melted most of the ice but made most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). It is spoken by nomads who inhabit the centre of the continent.. Because each group of nomads speak their own dialect, Thangha' is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluricentric_language Pluricentric language]. The situation is further complicated by the fact that Thangha's has become a lingua franca across much of East Antarctica (through other ethnic groups trading with the nomads). To give an example of the diversity, the initial consonant in the name of the language can be pronounced as [tˤ], [θˤ], [θ], [tsˤ], [sˤ], [tʰ], [tsʰ] or occasionally [ts]. The consonant that begins the second syllable is usually prononuced [x], but a few dialects pronounce it as as [χ], [ħ] or [h]. | Thangha' is another language spoken in my far future Antarctic conworld (after runaway global warming has melted most of the ice but made most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). It is spoken by nomads who inhabit the centre of the continent.. Because each group of nomads speak their own dialect, Thangha' is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluricentric_language Pluricentric language]. The situation is further complicated by the fact that Thangha's has become a lingua franca across much of East Antarctica (through other ethnic groups trading with the nomads). To give an example of the diversity, the initial consonant in the name of the language can be pronounced as [tˤ], [θˤ], [θ], [tsˤ], [sˤ], [tʰ], [tsʰ] or occasionally [ts]. The consonant that begins the second syllable is usually prononuced [x], but a few dialects pronounce it as as [χ], [ħ] or [h]. | ||
Like many other Antarctican languages (but definitely not all), Thangha' is descended from English. However, many ancestors of Thangha' speakers came from the Philippines, Indonesia and the Pacifc (these areas were the first to be severely affected by global warming), and the language is heavily influenced by Austronesian languages, most notably in its split ergative alignment. But it also borrowed heavily from Hindi and various Chinese dialects. | |||
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In non-word final syllables, it is very common for nasal vowels to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpacking unpack]into a sequence of oral vowel + nasal consonant (which is homorganic with the following consonant). For example, the vowel of the first syllable in the language name Thangha' is phonemically /aⁿ/, but is usually heard as [aŋ] (or [aɴ] for speakers who use a uvular fricative instead of a velar fricative). | In non-word final syllables, it is very common for nasal vowels to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpacking unpack]into a sequence of oral vowel + nasal consonant (which is homorganic with the following consonant). For example, the vowel of the first syllable in the language name Thangha' is phonemically /aⁿ/, but is usually heard as [aŋ] (or [aɴ] for speakers who use a uvular fricative instead of a velar fricative). | ||
Thangha' is well on the way to developing a second phonemic glottalised vowel /aʔ/, from coalesence of the sequence /a/ + | Thangha' is well on the way to developing a second phonemic glottalised vowel /aʔ/, from coalesence of the sequence /a/ + Obstruent + /əʔ/ (unstressed). For example, in careful speech, Thangha' is heard as /ˈtˤaⁿxapəʔ/, however in normal conversation it is almost always contracted to /ˈtˤaⁿxaʔ/. | ||
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Flaps usually become trills after glottal stops. | Flaps usually become trills after glottal stops. | ||
Clusters of glottal stop followed by stops, fricatives or affricates coalesce to become geminates e.g. / | Clusters of glottal stop followed by stops, fricatives or affricates coalesce to become geminates e.g. /ˈməʔda/ - "mother" is pronounced [ˈmədːa] | ||
The "aspirated" consonants were originally aspirated stops, and a very small number of dialects preserve this pronunciation, however in the vast majority of dialects these have undergone sound shifts. | The "aspirated" consonants were originally aspirated stops, and a very small number of dialects preserve this pronunciation, however in the vast majority of dialects these have undergone sound shifts. | ||
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| Between a Palatal / Palatalised Consonant, and a Lowering Consonant (Non-Labialised) || [ɐ] || [eː] || [oː] || [e] || [o] || [ɐⁿ] || [əⁿ]|| [ɘʔ] || [ɘ] || [ɐʔ] | | Between a Palatal / Palatalised Consonant, and a Lowering Consonant (Non-Labialised) || [ɐ] || [eː] || [oː] || [e] || [o] || [ɐⁿ] || [əⁿ]|| [ɘʔ] || [ɘ] || [ɐʔ] | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Nouns== | ==Nouns== | ||
Any Thangha' adjective can be used as a noun, and vice verca, any noun can be used as an adjective (which come before the head noun when used attributively, like English). For example, / | Any Thangha' adjective can be used as a noun, and vice verca, any noun can be used as an adjective (which come before the head noun when used attributively, like English). For example, /ˈsaⁿdəʔ/ [ˈsandəʔ] can mean either "sand" or "sandy". | ||
===Plurals=== | ===Plurals=== | ||
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====Additive Plural==== | ====Additive Plural==== | ||
This is formed by reduplicating the last syllable of the noun e.g. / | This is formed by reduplicating the last syllable of the noun e.g. /ˈɫama/ [ˈɫɑma] - "llama" -> /ˈɫama-ma/ [ˈɫɑmama] - "llamas". However, in Thangha', pluralisation is optional. So /ˈɫama/ could mean either "llama" or "llamas". In general, the plural is only used to emphasise that there is a large number / quantity of something. It can even be used for uncountable nouns e.g. /ˈsaⁿdəʔ/ [ˈsandəʔ] - sand (from a desert, Thangha' has a different word for beach sand) -> /ˈsaⁿdəʔdəʔ/ [ˈsandədːəʔ] - "large amount of desert sand / dune sea". | ||
====Associative Plural==== | ====Associative Plural==== | ||
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Distinct from the additive plural, this means "X and company", "X and his/her mob" etc. (similar to Japanese -tachi). It is formed by suffixing /-də/ to the noun e.g. | Distinct from the additive plural, this means "X and company", "X and his/her mob" etc. (similar to Japanese -tachi). It is formed by suffixing /-də/ to the noun e.g. | ||
/ˈdʷokəʔta/ - [dʷukətːa] - "shaman" (from English "doctor") -> /ˈdʷokəʔta-də/ - [dʷukətːadə] - "the shaman and his lot" | |||
Note that this is distinct from the additive plural discussed before. /ˈdʷokəʔta-ta/ refers to a group of shamans, while /ˈdʷokəʔta-də/ refers to a shaman with a group of other people associated with him (who by no means need to be shamans, and could well be the shaman's assistants or followers). | |||
Note that this is distinct from the additive plural discussed before. / | |||
===Case=== | ===Case=== | ||
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Thangha' has three cases, Absolutive (unmarked), Ergative (marked with the suffix /-ɟa/) and Genitive. | Thangha' has three cases, Absolutive (unmarked), Ergative (marked with the suffix /-ɟa/) and Genitive. | ||
The Genitive case is normally marked with the prefix /naⁿ-/ e.g. / | The Genitive case is normally marked with the prefix /naⁿ-/ e.g. /ˈdʷokəʔta/ - [dʷukətːa] - "shaman" -> /naⁿ-ˈdʷokəʔta/ - [nandʷukətːa] - "of the shaman shaman", /ˈməʔda/ - [ˈmədːa] - "mother" -> /naⁿ-ˈməʔda/ - [namˈmədːa] - "of the mother mother" -> However, if the initial consonant of the noun is /ʔ/, /j/ or /w/, then these are replaced with /nag-/, /naɟ-/ and /nagʷ-/ respectively. e.g. /ˈjiːtəʔ/ - "food" -> /naˈɟiːtəʔ/ - "of the food". | ||
===Possession=== | ===Possession=== | ||
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In this case, the word order is Possessed - Possessor, with the Possessor marked with the genitive case e.g. | In this case, the word order is Possessed - Possessor, with the Possessor marked with the genitive case e.g. | ||
/ | /baⁿ naⁿ-ˈdʷoʁəʔ/ | ||
[ | [baⁿ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ] | ||
bone GEN-dog | bone GEN-dog | ||
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The construction for alienable possession is completely different. The word order is Possessor - Possessed (the reverse of inalienable possession) and the Possessor is marked with the Ergative case e.g. | The construction for alienable possession is completely different. The word order is Possessor - Possessed (the reverse of inalienable possession) and the Possessor is marked with the Ergative case e.g. | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ baⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG bone | dog-ERG bone | ||
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Like English, Thangha' makes a two-way distance contrast in demonstratives, and there is no distinction between pronominal demonstratives and adnominal demonstratives (which precede the noun, like in English). Unlike English, there is no singular vs. plural contrast in demonstratives: | Like English, Thangha' makes a two-way distance contrast in demonstratives, and there is no distinction between pronominal demonstratives and adnominal demonstratives (which precede the noun, like in English). Unlike English, there is no singular vs. plural contrast in demonstratives: | ||
This / These: / | This / These: /ˈdʑəʔsəʔ/ [ˈdʑɪsːəʔ] | ||
That / Those: / | That / Those: /ˈdʑetəʔ/ [ˈdʑitəʔ] | ||
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In Thangha', prepositions are clitics that attach phonologically to the following word (whether that is a noun, demonstrative, numeral or adjective). The pronunciation of the last vowel in a preposition is affected by the first consonant in the following word e.g. | In Thangha', prepositions are clitics that attach phonologically to the following word (whether that is a noun, demonstrative, numeral or adjective). The pronunciation of the last vowel in a preposition is affected by the first consonant in the following word e.g. | ||
/ | /bə/ [bə] - "next to" | ||
/ | /ˈdʑəʔsəʔ/ [ˈdʑɪsːəʔ] - "this one" | ||
/ | /bə=ˈdʑəʔsəʔ/ [bɪˈdʑɪsːəʔ] - "next to this one" | ||
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If a preposition ends with /-əʔ/, and the following word begins with /ʔ/, /j/ or /w/, then the combination of the two words is often abbreviated by deleting the last vowel of the preposition and the first consonant of the following word e.g. | If a preposition ends with /-əʔ/, and the following word begins with /ʔ/, /j/ or /w/, then the combination of the two words is often abbreviated by deleting the last vowel of the preposition and the first consonant of the following word e.g. | ||
/ | /pˤəʔʔaⁿtəʔ/ [pˤʌʔːantəʔ] - "in front of" | ||
/ˈjiːtəʔ/ - "food" | /ˈjiːtəʔ/ - "food" | ||
/ | /pˤəʔʔaⁿˈtiːtəʔ/ [pˤʌʔːantˈiːtəʔ] - "in front of the food" ( the uncontracted form /pˤəʔʔaⁿtəʔ=ˈjiːtəʔ/ is grammatical but almost never heard). | ||
Sometimes, an initial /j/ or /w/ is not deleted entirely, but | Sometimes, an initial /j/ or /w/ is not deleted entirely, but assimilates with last consonant of the preposition e.g. | ||
/ | /ʔabafəʔ/ [ʔabaʔ] - "above" | ||
/ | /ʔabaˈfʲiːtəʔ/ [ʔabæˈfʲiːtəʔ] - "above the food" | ||
==Pronouns== | ==Pronouns== | ||
Thangha' makes a distinction between [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity inclusive and exclusive "we"]. Unlike the rest of the language which has ergative-absolutive alignment, pronouns have [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language Fluid-S Alignment]. In transitive sentences, subjects have the agentive case, while objects have the patientive case e.g. | Thangha' borrowed its pronouns from Austronesian languages, and makes a distinction between [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity inclusive and exclusive "we"]. Unlike the rest of the language which has ergative-absolutive alignment, pronouns have [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language Fluid-S Alignment]. In transitive sentences, subjects have the agentive case, while objects have the patientive case e.g. | ||
/ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə- | /ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈbetəʔˈkəʔɲəʔ/ | ||
[ˈʔʊkːʷa | [ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ] | ||
1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-bite 3PS.PAT | 1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-bite 3PS.PAT | ||
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/ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ- | /ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ˈʔʊkːʷa | [ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall | 1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall | ||
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/ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ- | /ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ˈʔæceⁿ | [ˈʔæceⁿ mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall | 1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall | ||
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|} | |} | ||
The genitive pronouns are used for both alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, they precede the noun they possess e.g. /kʷo | The genitive pronouns are used for both alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, they precede the noun they possess e.g. /kʷo baⁿ/ [kʷu baⁿ] - "my bone" (either in my body, or in my possession). | ||
The second person plural pronouns can also be used to refer to a single person, if the speaker desires to express respect to that person. This is similar to French tu vs. vous. | The second person plural pronouns can also be used to refer to a single person, if the speaker desires to express respect to that person. This is similar to French tu vs. vous. | ||
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/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈɽəⁿdʑəʔ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈɽɘndʑɪʔ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.PAT | dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.PAT | ||
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/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ waⁿ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ waⁿ baⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.GEN bone | dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.GEN bone | ||
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The reciprocal patientive pronoun is used where English would say "each other" or "one another". For example: | The reciprocal patientive pronoun is used where English would say "each other" or "one another". For example: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈɕaⁿqʷəʔ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈɕɐɴqʷɔʔ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT | dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT | ||
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/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdəʔʎəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈdɪʔʎɪʔ baⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT bone | dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT bone | ||
The dogs were biting each other's bones. | The dogs were biting each other's bones. | ||
==Verbs== | ==Verbs== | ||
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/dʷaⁿ- | /dʷaⁿ-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [dʷamˈbetəʔ baⁿ] | ||
PROH-bite bone.ABS | PROH-bite bone.ABS | ||
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/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
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/ | /dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ] | ||
dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
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/ | /baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/ | ||
[ | [baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ] | ||
bone.ABS dog-ERG ATEL-bite | bone.ABS dog-ERG ATEL-bite | ||
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/ʎə- | /ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ] | ||
ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
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/ | /ˈdʷokəʔta mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ | [dʷukətːa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
shaman TEL-fall | |||
The | The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the shaman did) | ||
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/mʲaɲəʔ- | /mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ | [mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa] | ||
TEL-fall | TEL-fall shaman | ||
The | The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground) | ||
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/ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ- | /ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ˈʔʊkːʷa | [ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall | 1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall | ||
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/ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ- | /ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ˈʔæceⁿ | [ˈʔæceⁿ mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall | 1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall | ||
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/mʲaɲəʔ- | /mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ | [mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
TEL-fall | TEL-fall | ||
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The subject of a ditranstive verb takes the ergative case, and both the direct and indirect objects take absolutive case. However, the indirect object is also marked with the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g. | The subject of a ditranstive verb takes the ergative case, and both the direct and indirect objects take absolutive case. However, the indirect object is also marked with the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g. | ||
/ˈʔəkːʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈdena | /ˈʔəkːʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈdena baⁿ dəʔ=ˈdʷoʁəʔ/ | ||
[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪ-ˈdːena | [ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪ-ˈdːena baⁿ dʊˈdːʷɔʁʌʔ] | ||
1PS.SG.AGT TEL-give bone DAT=dog | 1PS.SG.AGT TEL-give bone DAT=dog | ||
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To talk about general truths, the antipassive is used, with the subject occuring before the verb e.g. | To talk about general truths, the antipassive is used, with the subject occuring before the verb e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎæmaˈbetəʔ] | ||
dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite | dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite | ||
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The object of the sentence can resurface after verb, marked with the dative prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g. | The object of the sentence can resurface after verb, marked with the dative prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ dəʔ=baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎæmaˈbetəʔ dəˈbːaⁿ] | ||
dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite DAT=bone | dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite DAT=bone | ||
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The default voice can only be used for transitive verbs if the subject is definite. If the subject is indefinite, then the verb is antipassivised, and the subject reappears after the verb e.g. | The default voice can only be used for transitive verbs if the subject is definite. If the subject is indefinite, then the verb is antipassivised, and the subject reappears after the verb e.g. | ||
/ʎama- | /ʎama-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷoʁəʔ/ | ||
[ʎæma- | [ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ] | ||
ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS | ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS | ||
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/ʎama- | /ʎama-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷoʁəʔ dəʔ=baⁿ/ | ||
[ʎæma- | [ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ dəˈbːaⁿ] | ||
ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS DAT=bone | ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS DAT=bone | ||
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/ˈkəʔɲəʔ ʎama- | /ˈkəʔɲəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ/ | ||
[ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ ʎæma- | [ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ] | ||
3PS.PAT ANTIP.ATEL-bite | 3PS.PAT ANTIP.ATEL-bite | ||
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/mʲaɲəʔ- | /mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈcçada/ | ||
[ | [mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ ˈcçæda] | ||
TEL-fall shepherd.ABS | TEL-fall shepherd.ABS | ||
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/mʲaɲəʔka- | /mʲaɲəʔka-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta dəʔ=ˈcçada/ | ||
[ | [mʲæɲɪkːaˈpfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa dɪˈcːçæda] | ||
TEL.APPL-fall | TEL.APPL-fall shaman.ABS DAT=shepherd | ||
A shepherd dropped down for the boss (maybe prostrating himself). | A shepherd dropped down for the boss (maybe prostrating himself). | ||
Either / | Either /ˈdʷokəʔta/ - "boss" or /dəʔ=ˈcçada/ - "shepherd" (dative) can be topicalised (moving to before the verb). Both can be deleted if they are obvious from context. So /mʲaɲəʔka-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ could stand as a sentence by itself. | ||
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/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ dʷukətːa/ | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite | dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS | ||
A dog was biting the | A dog was biting the shaman. | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎəka-ˈbetəʔ ˈcçada dəʔ=ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪkaˈbetəʔ ˈcçæda dʊˈdːʷukətːa/ | ||
dog-ERG ATEL.BEN.APPL-bite shepherd.ABS DAT= | dog-ERG ATEL.BEN.APPL-bite shepherd.ABS DAT=shaman | ||
A dog was biting the | A dog was biting the shaman for the shepherd (maybe the shepherd ordered it to attack the boss). | ||
Line 636: | Line 632: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ dʷukətːa/ | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite | dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS | ||
A dog was biting the | A dog was biting the shaman. | ||
Line 648: | Line 644: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎəpaⁿ-ˈbetəʔ ɲəʔ ˈʂapəʔ ˈdaⁿtəʔ dəʔ=ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪpam-ˈbetəʔ ɲɪʔ ʂɑʔ ˈdantəʔ dʊˈdːʷukətːa] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL.INSTR.APPL-bite 3PS.GEN sharp tooth.ABS DAT= | dog-ERG ATEL.INSTR.APPL-bite 3PS.GEN sharp tooth.ABS DAT=shaman | ||
A dog was biting the shaman with its sharp teeth. | |||
==Copula== | ==Copula== | ||
Line 663: | Line 660: | ||
/ˈcçada-ɟa ʎə-ˈɕəʔ | /ˈcçada-ɟa ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ˈcçædæ-ɟæ | [ˈcçædæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈɕɪʔ dʷukətːa] | ||
shepherd-ERG ATEL-be | shepherd-ERG ATEL-be shaman.ABS | ||
The shepherd is the | The shepherd is the shaman (answering the actual or implied question of "Who is the shaman?") | ||
Line 675: | Line 672: | ||
/ˈcçada ʎə-ˈɕəʔ | /ˈcçada ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ˈcçæda | [ˈcçæda ʎɪˈɕɪʔ dʷukətːa] | ||
shepherd.TOP ATEL-be | shepherd.TOP ATEL-be shaman.ABS | ||
The shepherd is the | The shepherd is the shaman (answering the actual or implied question of "What does the shepherd do?") | ||
Line 689: | Line 686: | ||
/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ- | /ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈʂapəʔ/ | ||
[ˈdantəʔ | [ˈdantəʔ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɘˈʂɑʔ] | ||
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp | tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp | ||
Line 703: | Line 700: | ||
/ʎə-ˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ | /ʎə-ˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ bə=ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ʎɪˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ | [ʎɪˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ bʊdʷukətːa] | ||
ATEL-LOC food.ABS next.to= | ATEL-LOC food.ABS next.to=shaman | ||
The food is next to the | The food is next to the shaman. | ||
As can be seen in the above example, in contrast to the copula verb, the locative verb is intransitive, and the subject takes the absolutive case. | As can be seen in the above example, in contrast to the copula verb, the locative verb is intransitive, and the subject takes the absolutive case. | ||
==Relative Clauses== | ==Relative Clauses== | ||
Line 718: | Line 716: | ||
These always follow the noun that they modify, which they are separated from by the proclitic /xaⁿ/ e.g. | These always follow the noun that they modify, which they are separated from by the proclitic /xaⁿ/ e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈdʷoʁəʔ xaⁿ=ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ xæɲʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈbaⁿ] | ||
dog.ABS REL=ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog.ABS REL=ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
Line 729: | Line 727: | ||
Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g. | Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g. | ||
/ | /baⁿ xaⁿ=dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/ | ||
[ | [baⁿ xanˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ] | ||
bone REL=dog-ERG ATEL-bite | bone REL=dog-ERG ATEL-bite | ||
Line 743: | Line 741: | ||
/tʷuː | /tʷuː dʷoʁəʔ/ | ||
[tʷuːˈdʷɔʁʌʔ] | |||
two dog | two dog | ||
Line 752: | Line 752: | ||
To make ordinal numerals, prefix /də/ to the numeral e.g. | To make ordinal numerals, prefix /də/ to the numeral e.g. | ||
/də-tʷuː | /də-tʷuː dʷoʁəʔ/ | ||
[dʊtʷuː ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ] | |||
ORD-two dog | ORD-two dog | ||
Line 759: | Line 761: | ||
However, the Thangha' word for "first" is irregular. Whilst the numeral for "one" is /faⁿ/, the word for "first" is / | However, the Thangha' word for "first" is irregular. Whilst the numeral for "one" is /faⁿ/, the word for "first" is /ˈpɕasəʔtəʔ/ [ˈpɕætːəʔ]. | ||
Line 769: | Line 771: | ||
/ | /ˈdʷokəʔta mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ | [dʷukətːa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
shaman.TOP TEL-fall | |||
The | The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the boss did) | ||
/ | /ˈdʷokəʔta ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ | ||
[ | [dʷukətːa ba mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ] | ||
shaman.TOP Q TEL-fall | |||
Did the | Did the shaman drop to the ground? | ||
/mʲaɲəʔ- | /mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ | [mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa] | ||
TEL-fall | TEL-fall shaman.ABS | ||
The | The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground). | ||
/ba mʲaɲəʔ- | /ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/ | ||
[ba | [ba mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa] | ||
Q TEL-fall | Q TEL-fall shaman.ABS | ||
Did the | Did the shaman drop to the ground? (or was it somebody else). | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈkəʔta baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈkətːa baⁿ] | ||
dog-TOP ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog-TOP ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
Line 815: | Line 817: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ ba ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ba ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ] | ||
dog.TOP Q ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog.TOP Q ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
Line 824: | Line 826: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
Line 833: | Line 835: | ||
/ba | /ba dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ba | [ba ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ] | ||
Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
Line 842: | Line 844: | ||
/ | /baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/ | ||
[ | [baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ] | ||
bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-bite | bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-bite | ||
Line 851: | Line 853: | ||
/ | /baⁿ ba dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/ | ||
[ | [baⁿ ba ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ] | ||
bone.TOP Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite | bone.TOP Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite | ||
Line 865: | Line 867: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈbetəʔ cəⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ceⁿ] | ||
dog-TOP ATEL-bite what | dog-TOP ATEL-bite what | ||
Line 890: | Line 892: | ||
/ | /baⁿ naⁿ-ˈcəⁿ/ | ||
[ | [baⁿ næŋˈceⁿ] | ||
bone.ABS GEN-what | bone.ABS GEN-what | ||
Line 902: | Line 904: | ||
/ˈcaⁿ-ɟa | /ˈcaⁿ-ɟa baⁿ/ | ||
[ˈcæɲɟæ | [ˈcæɲɟæ baⁿ] | ||
what-ERG bone | what-ERG bone | ||
Line 919: | Line 921: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ] | ||
dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS | dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS | ||
Line 933: | Line 935: | ||
/ | /dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/ | ||
[ | [ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS | dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS | ||
Line 944: | Line 946: | ||
Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g. | Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g. | ||
/ | /baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa/ | ||
[ | [baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈdaʔa] | ||
bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have | bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have | ||
Line 961: | Line 963: | ||
/ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈdaʔa | /ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/ | ||
[ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈdaʔa | [ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ] | ||
1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone | 1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone | ||
Line 970: | Line 972: | ||
/ˈʔacəⁿ ʎə-ˈdaʔa | /ˈʔacəⁿ ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/ | ||
[ˈʔæceⁿ | [ˈʔæceⁿ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ] | ||
1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone | 1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone | ||
Line 981: | Line 983: | ||
==Comparative Constructions== | ==Comparative Constructions== | ||
The | The prepositional clitic /ʔabafəʔ/ [ʔabaʔ] literally means "above", but is also used to mean "more than" e.g. | ||
/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ- | /ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈʂapəʔ ʔabafəʔ=ɲəʔ baⁿ/ | ||
[ˈdantəʔ | [ˈdantəʔ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɘˈʂɑʔ ʔabæʔˈɲɪʔ baⁿ] | ||
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone | tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone | ||
The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones. | The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones. |
edits