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Thangha': Difference between revisions

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Thangha' (view source)

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Thangha' is another language spoken in my far future Antarctic conworld (after runaway global warming has melted most of the ice but made most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). It is spoken by nomads who inhabit the centre of the continent.. Because each group of nomads speak their own dialect, Thangha' is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluricentric_language Pluricentric language]. The situation is further complicated by the fact that Thangha's has become a lingua franca across much of East Antarctica (through other ethnic groups trading with the nomads). To give an example of the diversity, the initial consonant in the name of the language can be pronounced as [tˤ], [θˤ], [θ], [tsˤ], [sˤ], [tʰ], [tsʰ] or occasionally [ts]. The consonant that begins the second syllable is usually prononuced [x], but a few dialects pronounce it as as [χ], [ħ] or [h].
Thangha' is another language spoken in my far future Antarctic conworld (after runaway global warming has melted most of the ice but made most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). It is spoken by nomads who inhabit the centre of the continent.. Because each group of nomads speak their own dialect, Thangha' is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluricentric_language Pluricentric language]. The situation is further complicated by the fact that Thangha's has become a lingua franca across much of East Antarctica (through other ethnic groups trading with the nomads). To give an example of the diversity, the initial consonant in the name of the language can be pronounced as [tˤ], [θˤ], [θ], [tsˤ], [sˤ], [tʰ], [tsʰ] or occasionally [ts]. The consonant that begins the second syllable is usually prononuced [x], but a few dialects pronounce it as as [χ], [ħ] or [h].


Many ancestors of Thangha' speakers came from the Philippines, Indonesia and the Pacifc (these areas were the first to be severely affected by global warming), and the language is heavily influenced by Austronesian languages, most notably in its split ergative alignment. But it also borrowed heavily from English, Hindi and various Chinese dialects.
Like many other Antarctican languages (but definitely not all), Thangha' is descended from English. However, many ancestors of Thangha' speakers came from the Philippines, Indonesia and the Pacifc (these areas were the first to be severely affected by global warming), and the language is heavily influenced by Austronesian languages, most notably in its split ergative alignment. But it also borrowed heavily from Hindi and various Chinese dialects.




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In non-word final syllables, it is very common for nasal vowels to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpacking unpack]into a sequence of oral vowel + nasal consonant (which is homorganic with the following consonant). For example, the vowel of the first syllable in the language name Thangha' is phonemically /aⁿ/, but is usually heard as [aŋ] (or [aɴ] for speakers who use a uvular fricative instead of a velar fricative).
In non-word final syllables, it is very common for nasal vowels to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpacking unpack]into a sequence of oral vowel + nasal consonant (which is homorganic with the following consonant). For example, the vowel of the first syllable in the language name Thangha' is phonemically /aⁿ/, but is usually heard as [aŋ] (or [aɴ] for speakers who use a uvular fricative instead of a velar fricative).


Thangha' is well on the way to developing a second phonemic glottalised vowel /aʔ/, from coalesence of the sequence /a/ + Stop + /əʔ/ (unstressed). For example, in careful speech, Thangha' is heard as /ˈtˤaⁿxapəʔ/, however in normal conversation it is almost always contracted to /ˈtˤaⁿxaʔ/.
Thangha' is well on the way to developing a second phonemic glottalised vowel /aʔ/, from coalesence of the sequence /a/ + Obstruent + /əʔ/ (unstressed). For example, in careful speech, Thangha' is heard as /ˈtˤaⁿxapəʔ/, however in normal conversation it is almost always contracted to /ˈtˤaⁿxaʔ/.




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Flaps usually become trills after glottal stops.
Flaps usually become trills after glottal stops.


Clusters of glottal stop followed by stops, fricatives or affricates coalesce to become geminates e.g. /ˈwəʔɖa/ - "rain" [ˈwɔɖːɑ]
Clusters of glottal stop followed by stops, fricatives or affricates coalesce to become geminates e.g. /ˈməʔda/ - "mother" is pronounced [ˈmədːa]


The "aspirated" consonants were originally aspirated stops, and a very small number of dialects preserve this pronunciation, however in the vast majority of dialects these have undergone sound shifts.
The "aspirated" consonants were originally aspirated stops, and a very small number of dialects preserve this pronunciation, however in the vast majority of dialects these have undergone sound shifts.
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| Between a Palatal / Palatalised Consonant, and a Lowering Consonant (Non-Labialised) || [ɐ] || [eː] || [oː] || [e] || [o] || [ɐⁿ] || [əⁿ]|| [ɘʔ] || [ɘ] || [ɐʔ]
| Between a Palatal / Palatalised Consonant, and a Lowering Consonant (Non-Labialised) || [ɐ] || [eː] || [oː] || [e] || [o] || [ɐⁿ] || [əⁿ]|| [ɘʔ] || [ɘ] || [ɐʔ]
|}
|}


==Nouns==
==Nouns==


Any Thangha' adjective can be used as a noun, and vice verca, any noun can be used as an adjective (which come before the head noun when used attributively, like English). For example, /ˈpfəⁿʂa/ [ˈpfʌɲʂɑ] can mean either "sand" or "sandy".
Any Thangha' adjective can be used as a noun, and vice verca, any noun can be used as an adjective (which come before the head noun when used attributively, like English). For example, /ˈsaⁿdəʔ/ [ˈsandəʔ] can mean either "sand" or "sandy".


===Plurals===
===Plurals===
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====Additive Plural====
====Additive Plural====


This is formed by reduplicating the last syllable of the noun e.g. /ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ [ˈʂɑnsəʔ] - "boss" -> /ˈʂaⁿsəʔsəʔ/ [ˈʂɑnsəsːəʔ] - "bosses". However, in Thangha', pluralisation is optional. So /ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ could mean either "boss" or "bosses". In general, the plural is only used to emphasise that there is a large number / quantity of something. It can even be used for uncountable nouns e.g. /ˈpfəⁿʂa/ [ˈpfʌɲʂɑ] - sand (from a desert, Thangha' has a different word for beach sand) -> /ˈpfəⁿʂaʂa/ [ˈpfʌɲʂɑʂɑ] - "large amount of desert sand / dune sea".
This is formed by reduplicating the last syllable of the noun e.g. /ˈɫama/ [ˈɫɑma] - "llama" -> /ˈɫama-ma/ [ˈɫɑmama] - "llamas". However, in Thangha', pluralisation is optional. So /ˈɫama/ could mean either "llama" or "llamas". In general, the plural is only used to emphasise that there is a large number / quantity of something. It can even be used for uncountable nouns e.g. /ˈsaⁿdəʔ/ [ˈsandəʔ] - sand (from a desert, Thangha' has a different word for beach sand) -> /ˈsaⁿdəʔdəʔ/ [ˈsandədːəʔ] - "large amount of desert sand / dune sea".


====Associative Plural====
====Associative Plural====
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Distinct from the additive plural, this means "X and company", "X and his/her mob" etc. (similar to Japanese -tachi). It is formed by suffixing /-də/ to the noun e.g.
Distinct from the additive plural, this means "X and company", "X and his/her mob" etc. (similar to Japanese -tachi). It is formed by suffixing /-də/ to the noun e.g.


/ˈdʷokəʔta/ - [dʷukətːa] - "shaman" (from English "doctor") -> /ˈdʷokəʔta-də/ - [dʷukətːadə] - "the shaman and his lot"


/ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ [ˈʂɑnsəʔ] - "boss" -> /ˈʂaⁿsəʔdə/ [ˈʂɑnsədːə]- "the boss and his lot"
Note that this is distinct from the additive plural discussed before. /ˈdʷokəʔta-ta/ refers to a group of shamans, while /ˈdʷokəʔta-də/ refers to a shaman with a group of other people associated with him (who by no means need to be shamans, and could well be the shaman's assistants or followers).
 
 
Note that this is distinct from the additive plural discussed before. /ˈʂaⁿsəʔsəʔ/ refers to a group of bosses, while /ˈʂaⁿsəʔdə/ refers to a boss with a group of other people associated with him (who by no means need to be bosses, and could well be the boss's subordinates).


===Case===
===Case===
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Thangha' has three cases, Absolutive (unmarked), Ergative (marked with the suffix /-ɟa/) and Genitive.
Thangha' has three cases, Absolutive (unmarked), Ergative (marked with the suffix /-ɟa/) and Genitive.


The Genitive case is normally marked with the prefix /naⁿ-/ e.g. /ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ [ˈʂɑnsəʔ] - "boss" -> /naⁿˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ [naɳˈʂɑnsəʔ] - "of the boss", /ˈpfəⁿʂa/ [ˈpfʌɳʂɑ] - "sand" -> /naⁿˈpfəⁿʂa/ [namˈpfʌɳʂɑ] "of the sand". However, if the initial consonant of the noun is /ʔ/, /j/ or /w/, then these are replaced with /nag-/, /naɟ-/ and /nagʷ-/ respectively. e.g. /ˈʔaba/ - "ash" -> /naˈgaba/ - "of the ash", /ˈjiːtəʔ/ - "food" -> /naˈɟiːtəʔ/ - "of the food", /ˈwəʔɖa/ [ˈwɔɖːɑ] - "rain" -> /naˈgʷəʔɖa/ [naˈgʷɔɖːɑ] - "of the rain".
The Genitive case is normally marked with the prefix /naⁿ-/ e.g. /ˈdʷokəʔta/ - [dʷukətːa] - "shaman" -> /naⁿ-ˈdʷokəʔta/ - [nandʷukətːa] - "of the shaman shaman", /ˈməʔda/ - [ˈmədːa] - "mother" -> /naⁿ-ˈməʔda/ - [namˈmədːa] - "of the mother mother" -> However, if the initial consonant of the noun is /ʔ/, /j/ or /w/, then these are replaced with /nag-/, /naɟ-/ and /nagʷ-/ respectively. e.g. /ˈjiːtəʔ/ - "food" -> /naˈɟiːtəʔ/ - "of the food".
 


===Possession===
===Possession===
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In this case, the word order is Possessed - Possessor, with the Possessor marked with the genitive case e.g.  
In this case, the word order is Possessed - Possessor, with the Possessor marked with the genitive case e.g.  


/ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ naⁿ-kʷəʔˈta/
/baⁿ naⁿ-ˈdʷoʁəʔ/


[ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ naŋkʷʊˈtːa]
[baⁿ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ]


bone GEN-dog
bone GEN-dog
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The construction for alienable possession is completely different. The word order is Possessor - Possessed (the reverse of inalienable possession) and the Possessor is marked with the Ergative case e.g.
The construction for alienable possession is completely different. The word order is Possessor - Possessed (the reverse of inalienable possession) and the Possessor is marked with the Ergative case e.g.


/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ baⁿ]


dog-ERG bone
dog-ERG bone
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Like English, Thangha' makes a two-way distance contrast in demonstratives, and there is no distinction between pronominal demonstratives and adnominal demonstratives (which precede the noun, like in English). Unlike English, there is no singular vs. plural contrast in demonstratives:
Like English, Thangha' makes a two-way distance contrast in demonstratives, and there is no distinction between pronominal demonstratives and adnominal demonstratives (which precede the noun, like in English). Unlike English, there is no singular vs. plural contrast in demonstratives:


This / These: /ˈjəʔɲəʔ/ [jɪʔɲɪʔ]
This / These: /ˈdʑəʔsəʔ/ [ˈdʑɪsːəʔ]


That / Those: /ˈjəʔtʷəʔ/ [ˈjʏtːʷʊʔ]
That / Those: /ˈdʑetəʔ/ [ˈdʑitəʔ]




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In Thangha', prepositions are clitics that attach phonologically to the following word (whether that is a noun, demonstrative, numeral or adjective). The pronunciation of the last vowel in a preposition is affected by the first consonant in the following word e.g.
In Thangha', prepositions are clitics that attach phonologically to the following word (whether that is a noun, demonstrative, numeral or adjective). The pronunciation of the last vowel in a preposition is affected by the first consonant in the following word e.g.


/saⁿpʲəⁿ/ [sɛmpʲeⁿ] - "next to"
/bə/ [bə] - "next to"


/ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ [ˈʂɑnsəʔ] - "boss"
/ˈdʑəʔsəʔ/ [ˈdʑɪsːəʔ] - "this one"


/saⁿpʲəⁿ=ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ [sɛmpʲəɳ=ˈʂɑnsəʔ] - "next to the boss"
/bə=ˈdʑəʔsəʔ/ [bɪˈdʑɪsːəʔ] - "next to this one"




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If a preposition ends with /-əʔ/, and the following word begins with /ʔ/, /j/ or /w/, then the combination of the two words is often abbreviated by deleting the last vowel of the preposition and the first consonant of the following word e.g.
If a preposition ends with /-əʔ/, and the following word begins with /ʔ/, /j/ or /w/, then the combination of the two words is often abbreviated by deleting the last vowel of the preposition and the first consonant of the following word e.g.


/ʔatasəʔ/ - "above"
/pˤəʔʔaⁿtəʔ/ [pˤʌʔːantəʔ] - "in front of"


/ˈjiːtəʔ/ - "food"
/ˈjiːtəʔ/ - "food"


/ʔataˈsiːtəʔ/ - "above the food" ( the uncontracted form /ʔatasəʔ=ˈjiːtəʔ/ is grammatical but almost never heard).
/pˤəʔʔaⁿˈtiːtəʔ/ [pˤʌʔːantˈiːtəʔ] - "in front of the food" ( the uncontracted form /pˤəʔʔaⁿtəʔ=ˈjiːtəʔ/ is grammatical but almost never heard).




Sometimes, an initial /j/ or /w/ is not deleted entirely, but survives as secondary articulation on the last consonant of the preposition e.g.
Sometimes, an initial /j/ or /w/ is not deleted entirely, but assimilates with last consonant of the preposition e.g.


/ˈwəʔwa/ [ˈwʊʔwa] - "animal fat"
/ʔabafəʔ/ [ʔabaʔ] - "above"


/ʔataˈsʷəʔwa/ [ʔataˈsʷʊʔwa] - "above the animal fat"
/ʔabaˈfʲiːtəʔ/ [ʔabæˈfʲiːtəʔ] - "above the food"


/pəⁿtˤakəʔ/ [pʌntˤɑkəʔ]- "on top of"
/pəⁿtˤaˈkʷəʔwa/ [pʌntˤɒˈkʷʊʔwa] - "on top of the animal fat"
/pəⁿtˤaˈciːtəʔ/ [pʌntˤɐˈciːtəʔ] - "on top of the food"


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==


Thangha' makes a distinction between [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity inclusive and exclusive "we"]. Unlike the rest of the language which has ergative-absolutive alignment, pronouns have [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language Fluid-S Alignment]. In transitive sentences, subjects have the agentive case, while objects have the patientive case e.g.
Thangha' borrowed its pronouns from Austronesian languages, and makes a distinction between [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity inclusive and exclusive "we"]. Unlike the rest of the language which has ergative-absolutive alignment, pronouns have [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language Fluid-S Alignment]. In transitive sentences, subjects have the agentive case, while objects have the patientive case e.g.




/ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈkəʔɲəʔ/
/ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈbetəʔˈkəʔɲəʔ/


[ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈkətːa ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ]
[ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ]


1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-bite 3PS.PAT
1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-bite 3PS.PAT
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/ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall
1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall
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/ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[ˈʔæceⁿ mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[ˈʔæceⁿ mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall
1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall
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|}
|}


The genitive pronouns are used for both alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, they precede the noun they possess e.g. /kʷo ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/ [kʷu ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ] - "my bone" (either in my body, or in my possession).
The genitive pronouns are used for both alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, they precede the noun they possess e.g. /kʷo baⁿ/ [kʷu baⁿ] - "my bone" (either in my body, or in my possession).


The second person plural pronouns can also be used to refer to a single person, if the speaker desires to express respect to that person. This is similar to French tu vs. vous.
The second person plural pronouns can also be used to refer to a single person, if the speaker desires to express respect to that person. This is similar to French tu vs. vous.
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/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈɽəⁿdʑəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈɽəⁿdʑəʔ/


[kʷʊˈtːæɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ˈɽɘndʑɪʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈɽɘndʑɪʔ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.PAT
dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.PAT
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/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta waⁿ ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ waⁿ baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːæɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa waⁿ ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ waⁿ baⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.GEN bone
dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.GEN bone
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The reciprocal patientive pronoun is used where English would say "each other" or "one another". For example:
The reciprocal patientive pronoun is used where English would say "each other" or "one another". For example:


/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈɕaⁿqʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈɕaⁿqʷəʔ/


[kʷʊˈtːæɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ˈɕɐɴqʷɔʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈɕɐɴqʷɔʔ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT
dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT
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/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈdəʔʎəʔ ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdəʔʎəʔ baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːæɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ˈdɪʔʎɪʔ ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈdɪʔʎɪʔ baⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT bone
dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT bone


The dogs were biting each other's bones.
The dogs were biting each other's bones.


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
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/dʷaⁿ-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷaⁿ-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[dʷaŋˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[dʷamˈbetəʔ  baⁿ]


PROH-bite bone.ABS
PROH-bite bone.ABS
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/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/kʷəʔˈta ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːa ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]


dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta/
/baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/


[ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa]
[baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]


bone.ABS dog-ERG ATEL-bite
bone.ABS dog-ERG ATEL-bite
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/ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]


ATEL-bite bone.ABS
ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/ˈʂaⁿsəʔ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/ˈdʷokəʔta mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[ˈʂɑnsəʔ mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[dʷukətːa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


boss TEL-fall
shaman TEL-fall


The boss dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the boss did)
The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the shaman did)




Line 424: Line 420:




/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/


[mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ ˈʂɑnsəʔ]
[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa]


TEL-fall boss
TEL-fall shaman


The boss dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground)
The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground)




Line 438: Line 434:




/ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall
1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall
Line 450: Line 446:




/ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[ˈʔæceⁿ mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[ˈʔæceⁿ mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall
1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall
Line 464: Line 460:




/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


TEL-fall
TEL-fall
Line 477: Line 473:
The subject of a ditranstive verb takes the ergative case, and both the direct and indirect objects take absolutive case. However, the indirect object is also marked with the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g.
The subject of a ditranstive verb takes the ergative case, and both the direct and indirect objects take absolutive case. However, the indirect object is also marked with the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g.


/ˈʔəkːʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈdena ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ dəʔ=kʷəʔˈta/
/ˈʔəkːʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈdena baⁿ dəʔ=ˈdʷoʁəʔ/


[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪ-ˈdːena ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ dʊkːʷʊˈtːa]
[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪ-ˈdːena baⁿ dʊˈdːʷɔʁʌʔ]


1PS.SG.AGT TEL-give bone DAT=dog
1PS.SG.AGT TEL-give bone DAT=dog
Line 500: Line 496:
To talk about general truths, the antipassive is used, with the subject occuring before the verb e.g.
To talk about general truths, the antipassive is used, with the subject occuring before the verb e.g.


/kʷəʔˈta ʎama-ˈkəʔta/
/ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ/


[kʷʊˈtːa ʎæma-ˈkətːa]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎæmaˈbetəʔ]


dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite
dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite
Line 511: Line 507:
The object of the sentence can resurface after verb, marked with the dative prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g.
The object of the sentence can resurface after verb, marked with the dative prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g.


/kʷəʔˈta ʎama-ˈkəʔta dəʔ=ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ dəʔ=baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːa ʎæma-ˈkətːa dɔʔ=ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎæmaˈbetəʔ dəˈbːaⁿ]


dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite DAT=bone
dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite DAT=bone
Line 524: Line 520:
The default voice can only be used for transitive verbs if the subject is definite. If the subject is indefinite, then the verb is antipassivised, and the subject reappears after the verb e.g.
The default voice can only be used for transitive verbs if the subject is definite. If the subject is indefinite, then the verb is antipassivised, and the subject reappears after the verb e.g.


/ʎama-ˈkəʔta kʷəʔˈta/
/ʎama-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷoʁəʔ/


[ʎæma-ˈkətːa kʷʊˈtːa]
[ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ]


ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS
ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS
Line 536: Line 532:




/ʎama-ˈkəʔta kʷəʔˈta dəʔ=ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ʎama-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷoʁəʔ dəʔ=baⁿ/


[ʎæma-ˈkətːa kʷʊˈtːa dɔʔ=ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ dəˈbːaⁿ]


ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS DAT=bone
ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS DAT=bone
Line 571: Line 567:




/ˈkəʔɲəʔ ʎama-ˈkəʔta/
/ˈkəʔɲəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ/


[ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ ʎæma-ˈkətːa]
[ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ]


3PS.PAT ANTIP.ATEL-bite
3PS.PAT ANTIP.ATEL-bite
Line 585: Line 581:




/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa ˈcçada/
/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈcçada/


[mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ ˈcçæda]
[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ ˈcçæda]


TEL-fall shepherd.ABS
TEL-fall shepherd.ABS
Line 597: Line 593:




/mʲaɲəʔka-ˈɫʷuːʂa ˈʂaⁿsəʔ dəʔ=ˈcçada/
/mʲaɲəʔka-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta dəʔ=ˈcçada/


[mʲæɲɪkːɒ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ ˈʂɑnsəʔ dɪˈcːçæda]
[mʲæɲɪkːaˈpfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa dɪˈcːçæda]


TEL.APPL-fall boss.ABS DAT=shepherd
TEL.APPL-fall shaman.ABS DAT=shepherd


A shepherd dropped down for the boss (maybe prostrating himself).
A shepherd dropped down for the boss (maybe prostrating himself).




Either /ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/ - "boss" or  /dəʔ=ˈcçada/ - "shepherd" (dative) can be topicalised (moving to before the verb). Both can be deleted if they are obvious from context. So /mʲaɲəʔka-ˈɫʷuːʂa/ could stand as a sentence by itself.
Either /ˈdʷokəʔta/ - "boss" or  /dəʔ=ˈcçada/ - "shepherd" (dative) can be topicalised (moving to before the verb). Both can be deleted if they are obvious from context. So /mʲaɲəʔka-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ could stand as a sentence by itself.




Line 612: Line 608:




/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʂɑnsəʔ/
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ dʷukətːa/


dog-ERG ATEL-bite boss.ABS
dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS


A dog was biting the boss.
A dog was biting the shaman.






/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎəka-ˈkəʔta ˈcçada dəʔ=ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎəka-ˈbetəʔ ˈcçada dəʔ=ˈdʷokəʔta/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪka-ˈkətːa ˈcçæda dʌˈʂːɑnsəʔ/
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪkaˈbetəʔ ˈcçæda dʊˈdːʷukətːa/


dog-ERG ATEL.BEN.APPL-bite shepherd.ABS DAT=boss
dog-ERG ATEL.BEN.APPL-bite shepherd.ABS DAT=shaman


A dog was biting the boss for the shepherd (maybe the shepherd ordered it to attack the boss).
A dog was biting the shaman for the shepherd (maybe the shepherd ordered it to attack the boss).




Line 636: Line 632:




/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ɲəʔ ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ɲɪʔ ˈʂɑnsəʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ dʷukətːa/


dog-ERG ATEL-bite boss.ABS
dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS


A dog was biting the boss.
A dog was biting the shaman.




Line 648: Line 644:




/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎəpaⁿ-ˈkəʔta ɲəʔ wəʔˈjuːʎəʔ ˈdaⁿtəʔ dəʔ=ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎəpaⁿ-ˈbetəʔ ɲəʔ ˈʂapəʔ ˈdaⁿtəʔ dəʔ=ˈdʷokəʔta/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪpaŋ-ˈkətːa ɲɪʔ wʏʔˈjʉːʎɪʔ ˈdantəʔ dʌˈʂːɑnsəʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪpam-ˈbetəʔ ɲɪʔ ʂɑʔ ˈdantəʔ dʊˈdːʷukətːa]


dog-ERG ATEL.INSTR.APPL-bite 3PS.GEN sharp tooth.ABS DAT=boss
dog-ERG ATEL.INSTR.APPL-bite 3PS.GEN sharp tooth.ABS DAT=shaman
 
A dog was biting the shaman with its sharp teeth.


A dog was biting the boss with its sharp teeth.


==Copula==
==Copula==
Line 663: Line 660:




/ˈcçada-ɟa ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/ˈcçada-ɟa ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/


[ˈcçædæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈɕːɪʔ ˈʂɑnsəʔ]
[ˈcçædæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈɕɪʔ dʷukətːa]


shepherd-ERG ATEL-be boss.ABS
shepherd-ERG ATEL-be shaman.ABS


The shepherd is the boss (answering the actual or implied question of "Who is the boss?")
The shepherd is the shaman (answering the actual or implied question of "Who is the shaman?")




Line 675: Line 672:




/ˈcçada ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/ˈcçada ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/


[ˈcçæda ʎɪˈɕːɪʔ ˈʂɑnsəʔ]
[ˈcçæda ʎɪˈɕɪʔ dʷukətːa]


shepherd.TOP ATEL-be boss.ABS
shepherd.TOP ATEL-be shaman.ABS


The shepherd is the boss (answering the actual or implied question of "What does the shepherd do?")
The shepherd is the shaman (answering the actual or implied question of "What does the shepherd do?")




Line 689: Line 686:




/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-kʷəʔˈta ʎə-wəʔˈjuːʎəʔ/
/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈʂapəʔ/


[ˈdantəʔ naŋkʷʊˈtːa ʎʏwʏʔˈjʉːʎɪʔ]
[ˈdantəʔ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɘˈʂɑʔ]


tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp
Line 703: Line 700:




/ʎə-ˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ saⁿpʲəⁿ=ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/  
/ʎə-ˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ bə=ˈdʷokəʔta/  


[ʎɪˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ sɛmpʲɘɳ=ˈʂɑnsəʔ]
[ʎɪˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ bʊdʷukətːa]


ATEL-LOC food.ABS next.to=boss
ATEL-LOC food.ABS next.to=shaman


The food is next to the boss.
The food is next to the shaman.




As can be seen in the above example, in contrast to the copula verb, the locative verb is intransitive, and the subject takes the absolutive case.
As can be seen in the above example, in contrast to the copula verb, the locative verb is intransitive, and the subject takes the absolutive case.


==Relative Clauses==
==Relative Clauses==
Line 718: Line 716:
These always follow the noun that they modify, which they are separated from by the proclitic /xaⁿ/ e.g.
These always follow the noun that they modify, which they are separated from by the proclitic /xaⁿ/ e.g.


/kʷəʔˈta xaⁿ=ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ˈdʷoʁəʔ xaⁿ=ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːa xæɲʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ xæɲʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈbaⁿ]


dog.ABS REL=ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog.ABS REL=ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Line 729: Line 727:
Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g.
Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g.


/ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ xaⁿ=kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta/
/baⁿ xaⁿ=dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/


[ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ xaŋkʷʊˈtːæɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa]
[baⁿ xanˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]


bone REL=dog-ERG ATEL-bite
bone REL=dog-ERG ATEL-bite
Line 743: Line 741:




/tʷuː kʷəʔˈta/
/tʷuː dʷoʁəʔ/
 
[tʷuːˈdʷɔʁʌʔ]


two dog
two dog
Line 752: Line 752:
To make ordinal numerals, prefix /də/ to the numeral e.g.
To make ordinal numerals, prefix /də/ to the numeral e.g.


/də-tʷuː kʷəʔˈta/
/də-tʷuː dʷoʁəʔ/
 
[dʊtʷuː ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ]


ORD-two dog
ORD-two dog
Line 759: Line 761:




However, the Thangha' word for "first" is irregular. Whilst the numeral for "one" is /faⁿ/, the word for "first" is /wəʔˈnaⁿ/.
However, the Thangha' word for "first" is irregular. Whilst the numeral for "one" is /faⁿ/, the word for "first" is /ˈpɕasəʔtəʔ/ [ˈpɕætːəʔ].




Line 769: Line 771:




/ˈʂaⁿsəʔ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/ˈdʷokəʔta mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[ˈʂɑnsəʔ mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[dʷukətːa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


boss.TOP TEL-fall
shaman.TOP TEL-fall


The boss dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the boss did)
The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the boss did)






/ˈʂaⁿsəʔ ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa/
/ˈdʷokəʔta ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/


[ˈʂɑnsəʔ ba mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ]
[dʷukətːa ba mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]


boss.TOP Q TEL-fall
shaman.TOP Q TEL-fall


Did the boss drop to the ground?
Did the shaman drop to the ground?




/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/


[mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ ˈʂɑnsəʔ]
[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa]


TEL-fall boss.ABS
TEL-fall shaman.ABS


The boss dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground).
The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground).




/ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɫʷuːʂa ˈʂaⁿsəʔ/
/ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/


[ba mʲæɲɵʔ-ˈɫʷoːʂɑ ˈʂɑnsəʔ]
[ba mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa]


Q TEL-fall boss.ABS
Q TEL-fall shaman.ABS


Did the boss drop to the ground? (or was it somebody else).
Did the shaman drop to the ground? (or was it somebody else).




/kʷəʔˈta ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈkəʔta baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːa ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈkətːa baⁿ]


dog-TOP ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog-TOP ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Line 815: Line 817:




/kʷəʔˈta ba ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ ba ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːa ba ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ba ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]


dog.TOP Q ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog.TOP Q ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Line 824: Line 826:




/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Line 833: Line 835:




/ba kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ba dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/


[ba kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ba ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]


Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Line 842: Line 844:




/ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta/
/baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/


[ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa]
[baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]


bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-bite
bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-bite
Line 851: Line 853:




/ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ ba kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈkəʔta/
/baⁿ ba dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/


[ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ ba kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈkətːa]
[baⁿ ba ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]


bone.TOP Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite
bone.TOP Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite
Line 865: Line 867:




/kʷəʔˈta ʎə-ˈkəʔta cəⁿ/
/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈbetəʔ cəⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːa ʎɪˈkətːa ceⁿ]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ceⁿ]


dog-TOP ATEL-bite what
dog-TOP ATEL-bite what
Line 890: Line 892:




/ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ naⁿ-ˈcəⁿ/
/baⁿ naⁿ-ˈcəⁿ/


[ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ næŋˈceⁿ]
[baⁿ næŋˈceⁿ]


bone.ABS GEN-what
bone.ABS GEN-what
Line 902: Line 904:




/ˈcaⁿ-ɟa ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ˈcaⁿ-ɟa baⁿ/


[ˈcæɲɟæ ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈcæɲɟæ baⁿ]


what-ERG bone
what-ERG bone
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/kʷəʔˈta ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːa ʎɪˈdaʔa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]


dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS
dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS
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/kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/


[kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈdaʔa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS
dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS
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Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g.
Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g.


/ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ kʷəʔˈta-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa/
/baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa/


[ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ kʷʊˈtːæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈdaʔa]
[baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈdaʔa]


bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have
bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have
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/ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/


[ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈdaʔa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]


1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone
1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone
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/ˈʔacəⁿ ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ˈʔacəⁿ ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/


[ˈʔæceⁿ] ʎɪˈdaʔa ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈʔæceⁿ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]


1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone
1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone
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==Comparative Constructions==
==Comparative Constructions==


The preposition /çəʔˈʂaⁿ/ [çɘˈʂːɑⁿ] literally means "above", but is also used to mean "more than" e.g.
The prepositional clitic /ʔabafəʔ/ [ʔabaʔ] literally means "above", but is also used to mean "more than" e.g.


/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-kʷəʔˈta ʎə-wəʔˈjuːʎəʔ çəʔˈʂaⁿ ɲəʔ ˈʀʷəʔtʷəʔ/
/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈʂapəʔ ʔabafəʔ=ɲəʔ baⁿ/


[ˈdantəʔ naŋkʷʊˈtːa ʎʏwʏʔˈjʉːʎɪʔ çɘˈʂːɑⁿ ɲɪʔ ˈʁʷɔtːʷʊʔ]
[ˈdantəʔ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɘˈʂɑʔ ʔabæʔˈɲɪʔ baⁿ]


tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone


The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones.
The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones.
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