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Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).
Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).


It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. Many of the fonuders were from a number of East Asian countries, and used English as a common language while bringing their own languages with them. However the community was isolated, and within a few generations their English had developed into a creole, influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language.
It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. Many of the founders were from a number of East Asian countries, and used English as a common language while bringing their own languages with them. However the community was isolated, and within a few generations their English had developed into a creole, influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language.


It then diverged into a number of widely divergent dialects (technology regressed, and groups of speakers were cut off from one another), followed by another period of koineisation when enough technology was re-invented for speakers of different dialects to be able to contact one other again. This koine was called Kämpya, and spread to many other parts of the continent, aided by the growth of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.
It then diverged into a number of widely divergent dialects (technology regressed, and groups of speakers were cut off from one another), followed by another period of koineisation when enough technology was re-invented for speakers of different dialects to be able to contact one other again. This koine was called Kämpya, and spread to many other parts of the continent, aided by the growth of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.
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In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
==Typological Influences==
The contrast between alienable and inalienable possession was not present in any of the major languages of the initial settlers. However it has developed into an areal feature and is now found in most of the languages on the continent.
A similar situation happened with evidentiality, although its spread is much more restricted, only being found in the languages spoken along the Ross Sea coast. In this area, high mountains and long fjords meant that people lived in small, isolated communities. In such communities, where everyone knew one another, gossip could be highly destructive. This context favoured the development of evidentiality.
The lack of marking for number and tense / aspect  is common in Antarctican languages from areas where a large portion of the founding population spoke Mainland East / SE Asian languages (which lack these features).
Topic-comment and wh-in-situ word order came into Kämpya through similar means (it is very common in East and SE Asia).
Ergativity came into Antarctica from speakers of Austronesian languages from Eastern Indonesia, the Pacific and the Philippines, three areas which were among the first to be severely affected by climate change, and therefore among the first migrants to the south. some degree of ergativity is a continent-wide areal feature. In the case of Kämpya, the English possessive 's began to be used to mark ergative subjects. By analogy, possessive pronouns then began to be used as ergative pronouns e.g. /jó/ - 2PS.ERG from English "your". Later, a different suffix /ji/ began to be used to mark possession.
Clusivity also spread throughout Antarctica by similar means, although many languages (including Kämpya) ended up conflating the first person singular and the first person exclusive plural.
Applicative constructions also entered Kämpya through influence from Austronesian languages such as Tagalog. However they did not spread as widely throughout the continent.
Marking pronouns with pre-verbal clitics originated in Spanish (indeed Kämpya's accusative pronouns are borrowed from Spanish). This has spread across Antarctica as an areal feature (except that in some languages, they are prefixes rather than clitics).
The vast majority of the founders spoke pro-drop languages (Burmese, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese etc.) so it is perhaps no surprise that Kämpya has become pro-drop (apart from the pre-verbal clitics).
Kämpya borrowed a number of its postpositions from Burmese e.g. locative /ka/. Other postpositions were originally English prepositions, but switched to be postpositions under the influence of languages such as Burmese and Japanese.
Placing postpositional phrases before the verb was borrowed from Chinese (perhaps also helped by the fact that many other founders spoke verb-final languages such as Burmese and Japanese).
Anti-logophoricity is an areal feature that developed along the Ross Sea coast after settlement.
Marking restrictiveness on adjectives by word order originated in Spanish, but became more extensive after settlement. Marking restrictiveness on adjectives (in some way, not necessarily by word order) is an Antarctic areal feature.
The complicated demonstrative system (depending on whether the object is uphill or downhill from the speaker) is an areal feature of the Ross Sea coast. Like most of the areas where such a system has developed, this area is very mountainous.
Using a separate verb for locational predication (in the case of Kämpya /éʔ/, which is cognate to English "at") is an areal feature of East and SE Asia.
Using a postposition to form a comparative construction is another areal feature of Asia which has found its way into Kämpya.




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In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ].
In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ].


If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name" is pronounced [nâḭⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the dative clitic /àuŋ/ to form /nâḭm=àuŋ/ - "to the name", which is pronounced [nâḭmàuⁿ].
If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name" is pronounced [nâḭⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the alienable genitive clitic /jì/ to form /nâḭm=jì/ - "of the name", which is pronounced [nâḭmjì].


===Stress and Phonation===
===Stress and Phonation===
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If /h/ occurs after vowels with harsh phonation, it is pronounced as a voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] e.g. /zwéˈmâ̰h/ - "to report", is pronounced [zwéˈmâ̰ʢ].
If /h/ occurs after vowels with harsh phonation, it is pronounced as a voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] e.g. /zwéˈmâ̰h/ - "to report", is pronounced [zwéˈmâ̰ʢ].


Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the dative clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g.
Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /ji/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g.


/à̤h=jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
/à̤h=jì/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çì] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).


/dáʔh=jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].
/dáʔh=jì/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçì].
 
/à̤h=àuŋ/ - "to the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].
 
/dáʔh=àuŋ/ - "to the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].




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| alone || áˈlâṵn || áˈlàṵn || àˈláṵn
| alone || áˈlâṵn || áˈlàṵn || àˈláṵn
|-
|-
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlâṵn=jà || áˈlàṵn=já || àˈláṵn=jà
| alone + Genitive clitic /ji/ || áˈlâṵn=jì || áˈlàṵn=jí || àˈláṵn=jì
|-
|-
| question || à̤h || à̤h || ǎ̤h
| question || à̤h || à̤h || ǎ̤h
|-
|-
| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jà || à̤h=já || ǎ̤h=jà
| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jì || à̤h=jí || ǎ̤h=jì
|}
|}


===Sound Correspondences with English===
===Sound Correspondences with English===
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====Consonants====
====Consonants====


Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. /tʰóʔp/ - "summit" (from English "top")
Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. /tʰáp/ - "above" (from English "top")


/s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. /sʰḛ̂n/ - "heaven" (from English "ascend") vs. /èˈsóʔt/ - "exotic.DESC" (the /k/ that used to precede the /s/ was lost, but not before blocking that aspiration that would otherwise have occurred on an /s/ in a stressed syllable).
/s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. /sʰḛ̂n/ - "heaven" (from English "ascend") vs. /èˈsóʔt/ - "exotic.DESC" (the /k/ that used to precede the /s/ was lost, but not before blocking that aspiration that would otherwise have occurred on an /s/ in a stressed syllable).
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/ʍ/ re-emerged in English via spelling pronunciations, becoming Kämpya /hw/ (pronounced as [ʍ]) e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".
/ʍ/ re-emerged in English via spelling pronunciations, becoming Kämpya /hw/ (pronounced as [ʍ]) e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".


English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord".
English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". The exception to this was when it was clustered with /r/, in which case it became /hw/ e.g. /hwám/ - "from".


English /v/ became /bw/ before a vowel e.g. /ˈbwḛ̂lì/ - "valley"
English /v/ became /bw/ before a vowel e.g. /ˈbwḛ̂lì/ - "valley"
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# The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. /béiʔ/ - "belt".
# The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. /béiʔ/ - "belt".
# The vowel in SQUARE and MARY became /e/ in unstressed syllables, and /eː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /e/ e.g. /kʰḛ̂/ - "hospital patient" (from English "care")
# The vowel in SQUARE and MARY became /e/ in unstressed syllables, and /eː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /e/ e.g. /kʰḛ̂/ - "hospital patient" (from English "care")
# The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. /wà̰n/ - "one". However, before /l/, it became /au/ e.g. /kâṵ/ - "skull".
# The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. /sʰâ̰n/ - "son". However, before /l/, it became /au/ e.g. /kâṵ/ - "skull".
# The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. /pʰúʔ/ - "foot".
# The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. /pʰúʔ/ - "foot".
# The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose", /tʰêḭ/ - "two". However, before another vowel, it became /e/ e.g. /sʰḛ̂wà/ - "sewer". In stressed syllables before /l/, it became /u/ e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool"
# The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose". However, before another vowel, it became /e/ e.g. /sʰḛ̂wà/ - "sewer". In stressed syllables before /l/, it became /u/ e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool"
# The vowel in FACE normally became /ai/ e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name". However, before /l/ it became /aju/ e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".
# The vowel in FACE normally became /ai/ e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name". However, before /l/ it became /aju/ e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".
# The vowel in PRICE became /ou/ in stressed syllables, and /ai/ in unstressed syllables e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price", /ˈḭ̂mwài/ - "invitation" (from an initial stressed derived form of "invite"). However, before /l/ it became /oju/ in stressed syllables, and /aju/ elsewhere e.g. /tʰô̰jù/ - "tile"
# The vowel in PRICE became /ou/ in stressed syllables, and /ai/ in unstressed syllables e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price", /ˈḭ̂mwài/ - "invitation" (from an initial stressed derived form of "invite"). However, before /l/ it became /oju/ in stressed syllables, and /aju/ elsewhere e.g. /tʰô̰jù/ - "tile".
# The vowel in CHOICE became /ou/ e.g. /tʰjòi̤/ - "choice", except before /l/ when it became /oju/ e.g. /ˈbô̰jù/ - "hot spring" (from English "boil").
# The vowel in CHOICE became /ou/ e.g. /tʰjòi̤/ - "choice", except before /l/ when it became /oju/ e.g. /ˈbô̰jù/ - "hot spring" (from English "boil").
# The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, in a stressed syllable before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /kʰôṵlà/ - "(Coca-)Cola".
# The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, in a stressed syllable before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /kʰôṵlà/ - "(Coca-)Cola".
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! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person !! 3PS !! Reflexive !! Interrogative
! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person !! 3PS !! Reflexive !! Interrogative
|-
|-
| Before a consonant || mí || lé || njí || swí || sé || ké
| Before a consonant || mí || lé || té || swí || sé || ké
|-
|-
| Before a vowel || mj- || lés- || íŋ- || síw- || és- || ék-
| Before a vowel || mj- || lés- || ét- || síw- || és- || ék-
|-
|-
| Emphatic || mḭ̀ || lè̤ || ḭ̀ŋ || swḭ̀ || sḛ̀  || kḛ̀
| Emphatic || mḭ̀ || lè̤ || tḛ̀ || swḭ̀ || sḛ̀  || kḛ̀
|}
|}


The emphatic forms are also used with postpositions e.g. /mḭ̀=pʰwám/ - "from me".
The emphatic forms are also used with postpositions e.g. /mḭ̀=hwám/ - "from me".


===Genitive / Ergative Pronouns===
===Genitive / Ergative Pronouns===
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====With Postpositional Phrases====
====With Postpositional Phrases====


If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=pʰwám/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say:
If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say:


/ˈbwḛ̀lí=pʰwám déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/


valley=from depart enemy
valley=from depart enemy
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or
or


/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=pʰwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/


enemy valley=from depart
enemy valley=from depart
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However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=pʰwám déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=hwám déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:


/ˈbwḛ̀lí=pʰwám jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/


valley=from 2PS depart
valley=from 2PS depart
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/dô̰k njí=ˈbíʔ/
/dô̰k té=ˈbíʔ/


dog 2PS.ACC=bite
dog 2PS.ACC=bite
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or
or


/njí=ˈbíʔ dô̰k/
/té=ˈbíʔ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite dog
2PS.ACC=bite dog
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The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g.
The deleted object can be re-introduced using the dative postposition, /-gó/ (which changes the noun into Tone Class 2). These nouns are re-introduced into the same syntactic "slot" as postpositional objects e.g.


/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ /


dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT
dog lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite


The dog bit the lizard.
The dog bit the lizard.
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However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:
However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:


/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ áˈwâḭ/


dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee
dog lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite flee


The dog bit the lizard and (the dog) ran away.
The dog bit the lizard and (the dog) ran away.
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The dog bit the lizard and the lizard ran away.
The dog bit the lizard and the lizard ran away.
Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g.
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔ kʰjâṵ=jàuŋ/
lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT
The lizard bit the cow.


===Ditransitive Sentences===
===Ditransitive Sentences===


For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.
For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ta/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.


/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/


guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog
guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog
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or
or


/dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p/
/dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p/


dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
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The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.
The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.


/ˈsʰíʔtà wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/ˈsʰíʔtà tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/


guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
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It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.
It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.


/ˈsʰíʔtà bàṵn=tí θú=gḭ̂p dô̰k=àuŋ/
/ˈsʰíʔtà bàṵn=tá dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/


guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian bone=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give


The guardian gave the bone to the dog.
The guardian gave the bone to the dog.


===With Postpositional Phrases===
===With Postpositional Phrases===
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Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.
Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.


/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/


guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
Line 719: Line 738:
=====Clitics beginning with /t/ and /p/=====
=====Clitics beginning with /t/ and /p/=====


Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g.
Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ta/ becomes /ɾa/ e.g.


/ˈsʰíʔtà gwà̤=ɾí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/ˈsʰíʔtà gwà̤=ɾá gḭ̂p dô̰k/


guardian grass=SEC give dog
guardian grass=SEC give dog
Line 728: Line 747:




Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥èʔ=ɾí/, as in:
Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥èʔ=ɾá/, as in:


/ˈsʰíʔtà n̥ḛ̀=ɾí θú=gḭ̂p dô̰k=àuŋ/
/ˈsʰíʔtà n̥ḛ̀=ɾá dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/


guardian snare=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian snare=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give


Literally "the guardian gave the snare to the dog", but "give a snare" could also be translated as "use a snare to catch".
Literally "the guardian gave the snare to the dog", but "give a snare" could also be translated as "use a snare to catch".
Line 763: Line 782:


The /k/ here lenits to /h/ and triggers deaspiration in exactly the same way as /g/. However, if the monophthong had harsh voice, it changes to be glottalised e.g. from /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", if we add the locative clitic /-ka/, the result is /nèʔ=há/ - "at the snare".
The /k/ here lenits to /h/ and triggers deaspiration in exactly the same way as /g/. However, if the monophthong had harsh voice, it changes to be glottalised e.g. from /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", if we add the locative clitic /-ka/, the result is /nèʔ=há/ - "at the snare".


====With Pronouns====
====With Pronouns====
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/bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wé=ká jô̰ gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká jô̰ gḭ̂p dô̰k/


bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog
bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog
Line 782: Line 800:




/jô̰ bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/jô̰ bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/


2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
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This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ bàṵn=tí/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest".
This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ bàṵn=tá/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest".
 


=====With Postpositions=====
=====With Postpositions=====


The emphatic forms of the accusative pronouns are used with a postposition (e.g. the secundative /tí/). However, some of these pronouns trigger the sandhi rules discussed before (changing the phonation on the vowel to glottalised), and leniting the postposition to. Here is a list of the pronouns when used with the secundative postposition:
The emphatic forms of the accusative pronouns are used with a postposition (e.g. the secundative /tá/). However, these pronouns trigger the same sandhi rules discussed before (changing the phonation on the vowel to glottalised), and leniting the postposition to. Here is a list of the pronouns when used with the secundative postposition:


1st Person Exclusive - /mìʔ=ɾí/
1st Person Exclusive - /mìʔ=ɾá/


1st Person Inclusive - /là̰n=tí/
1st Person Inclusive - /lè̤=ɾá/


2nd Person - /ḭ̀ŋ=tí/
2nd Person - /tèʔ=ɾá/


3rd Person - /swìʔ=ɾí/
3rd Person - /swìʔ=ɾá/


Reflexive - /sèʔ=ɾí/
Reflexive - /sèʔ=ɾá/


===Applicative Voice===
===Applicative Voice===


To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:
To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the postpositonal object "slot" in the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /=gó/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:


/ˈdô̰k=zù pʰò̤wé=ká ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/ˈdô̰k=zù pʰò̤wé=ká ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
Line 819: Line 836:
we can apply an applicative transformation to get:
we can apply an applicative transformation to get:


/pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù lḭ̀zád=góˈbíʔ=kà/


forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT
forest dog=ERG lizard=DAT bite=LOC


In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.
In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.
Line 828: Line 845:
As another example, the sentence
As another example, the sentence


/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=pʰwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/


enemy valley=from depart
enemy valley=from depart
Line 837: Line 854:
becomes the following:
becomes the following:


/ˈbwḛ̂lì déˈpáʔɾ=pʰwàm ˈḛ̂nèm=àuŋ/
/ˈbwḛ̂lì ˈè̤ném=gó déˈpáʔɾ=hwàm/


valley depart=from enemy=DAT
valley enemy=DAT depart=from


From the valley, the enemy departed.
From the valley, the enemy departed.
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Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.
Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.


/dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p/
/dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p/


dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
Line 858: Line 875:
becomes
becomes


/bâṵn ˈsʰíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂p=tì ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/
/bâṵn ˈsʰíʔtà=zù dò̰k=góˈgḭ̂p=tá/


bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT
bone guardian=ERG dog=DAT give=SEC


The bone was given to the dog by the guardian.
The bone was given to the dog by the guardian.
Line 867: Line 884:
When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to
When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to


/dô̰k pʰò̤wé=ká njí=ˈbíʔ/
/dô̰k pʰò̤wé=ká té=ˈbíʔ/


dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite
dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite
Line 876: Line 893:
we get
we get


/pʰò̤wè njí=ˈbíʔ=kà dô̰k=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wè dò̰k=gó té=ˈbíʔ=kà/


forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT
forest dog=DAT 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC


In the forest, the dog bit you.
In the forest, the dog bit you.




Notice that when the postpositions /pʰwam/, /ka/ and /ti/ attach to a noun, they have High Tone, since postpositional phrases are in Tone Class 2. However, when they attach to a verb, they have has Low Tone, since verbs are in Tone Class 1.
Notice that when the postpositions /hwam/, /ka/ and /ti/ attach to a noun, they have High Tone, since postpositional phrases are in Tone Class 2. However, when they attach to a verb, they have has Low Tone, since verbs are in Tone Class 1.


This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.
This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.


/pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù bíʔ ˈˈjě̤tài=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù lḭ̀zád=gó bíʔ ˈˈjě̤tài=kà/


forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT
forest dog=ERG lizard=DAT bite yesterday.ADV=LOC


In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.
In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.
Line 920: Line 937:
or
or


/sôṵlà ˈjéḭ/
/sôṵlà àˈwá̰/


sun yellow.DESC
sun yellow.DESC
Line 927: Line 944:




In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /jèḭ sôṵlà/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns.
In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /áˈwà̰ sôṵlà/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns.


===Articles===
===Articles===


There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /wá-/ before a consonant and /wán-/ before a vowel e.g.
There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /tí-/ before a consonant and /ít-/ before a vowel e.g.




/wá=dô̰k/
/tí=dô̰k/


INDEF=dog
INDEF=dog
Line 941: Line 958:




/wá=ˈḛ̂nèm/
/ít=ˈḛ̂nèm/


INDEF=enemy
INDEF=enemy
Line 950: Line 967:
Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some enemies".
Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some enemies".


It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /wà̰n/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /wà̰n/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch.
It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /tìʔ/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /tìʔ/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch.


Compare:
Compare:


/wá=dô̰k/
/tí=dô̰k/


INDEF=dog
INDEF=dog
Line 963: Line 980:
with
with


/wà̰n dô̰k/
/tìʔ dô̰k/


one dog
one dog
Line 970: Line 987:




The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */wá=wà̰n dô̰g/ is ungrammatical.
The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */tí=tìʔ dô̰k/ is ungrammatical.


However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g.
However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g.




/wá=ˈjḛ̀láu dô̰k/
/ít=áˈwà̰ dô̰k/


INDEF=yellow.REST dog
INDEF=yellow.REST dog


a yellow dog
a yellow dog


===Demonstratives===
===Demonstratives===
Line 988: Line 1,004:




It also uses tone to distinguish pronominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' is a cat") from adnominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' cat is here"). It also uses tone to make a further distinction in adnominal demonstratives depending on whether they are describing a place, or something else.
It also uses tone to distinguish pronominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' is a cat") from adnominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' cat is here"). It also uses tone to make a further distinction in adnominal demonstratives depending on whether they are describing a place (in which case they are clitics), or something else.




For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place.
For example "this mountain" is /dá=ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place.




Line 1,013: Line 1,029:
Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.
Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.


/dò̰k=já bâṵn/
/dò̰k=jí bâṵn/


dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone
dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone
Line 1,021: Line 1,037:
While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.
While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.


/dô̰k=jà bâṵn/
/dô̰k=jì bâṵn/


dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone
Line 1,031: Line 1,047:




/dô̰k=jà dà̰ bâṵn/
/dô̰k=jì dà̰ bâṵn/


dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone


This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone").
This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone").


===Relative Clauses===
===Relative Clauses===
Line 1,095: Line 1,110:


The forest, which the lizard bit it in, is small.
The forest, which the lizard bit it in, is small.
====Internal Heads====
It must be noted that Kämpya restrictive relative clauses are strictly speaking internally headed [http://wals.info/chapter/90]. We can only see this in antipassives and applicatives where the noun (that used to be in the absolutive case) is re-introduced as a dative argument, it follows the head noun e.g.
/θú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/
ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee
The lizard that had bitten the dog fled. (not */θú=bíʔ dô̰g=àuŋ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/)
Or in an applicative construction:
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà pʰò̤wè dô̰k=àuŋ m̥ôṵ/
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small
The forest that the lizard bit the dog in is small. (not */ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà dô̰g=àuŋ pʰò̤wè m̥ôṵ/)


==Mood/Evidentiality==
==Mood/Evidentiality==
Line 1,127: Line 1,120:
The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence
The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence


/njí=bíʔ dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite dog.
2PS.ACC=bite dog.
Line 1,136: Line 1,129:
We can say
We can say


/njí=ná=bíʔ dô̰k/
/té=ná=bíʔ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
Line 1,145: Line 1,138:
as well as
as well as


/ná=njí=bíʔ dô̰k/
/ná=té=bíʔ dô̰k/


NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog
NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog
Line 1,154: Line 1,147:
and
and


/njí=bíʔ ná=dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ ná=dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog
Line 1,161: Line 1,154:




However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g ŋí=bíʔ/ is ungrammatical.
However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g té=bíʔ/ is ungrammatical.




As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.
As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.


/njí=bíʔ ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog
Line 1,176: Line 1,169:
And adverbs e.g.
And adverbs e.g.


/njí=bíʔ nà=déiʔp dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ nà=déiʔp dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog
Line 1,186: Line 1,179:
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.


/njí=náw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/
/té=náw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog
2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog


You weren't abandoned by the dog.
You weren't abandoned by the dog.


===Necessitative Mood===
===Necessitative Mood===


This is used to indicate that something ought to / is required to happen. It is indicated using the proclitic /let/ (from English "let's) e.g.  
This is used to indicate that something ought to / is required to happen. It is indicated using the proclitic /ga/, or /gat/ before a vowel (from English "gotta") e.g.  




/ái=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/ái=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart
1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart
Line 1,208: Line 1,200:




/wéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/wéi=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


1PS.INCL=NEC=depart
1PS.INCL=NEC=depart
Line 1,218: Line 1,210:




/jéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/jéi=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


2PS=NEC=depart
2PS=NEC=depart
Line 1,225: Line 1,217:




Like other mood particles, /let/ does not need to attach to a verb. It can attach to other parts of speech depending on the focus of the speaker e.g.
Like other mood particles, /ga/ does not need to attach to a verb. It can attach to other parts of speech depending on the focus of the speaker e.g.




/jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ lèt=ˈzwéʔp/
/jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ gà=ˈzwéʔp/


2PS=depart NEC=fast
2PS=depart NEC=fast
Line 1,239: Line 1,231:
Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g.
Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g.


/jéi=lét=áˈlàṵn nâ̰/
/jéi=gát=áˈlàṵn nâ̰/


2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH
2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH
Line 1,248: Line 1,240:
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs


/jô̰ lét=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/
/jô̰ gá=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/


2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
Line 1,257: Line 1,249:
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.


/dô̰k jô̰ lét=bìʔ nâ̰/
/dô̰k jô̰ gá=bìʔ nâ̰/


dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH
dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH
Line 1,266: Line 1,258:
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.


/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù lét=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/
/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù gá=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/


guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
Line 1,284: Line 1,276:




/njí=wáná=bíʔ dô̰k/
/té=wáná=bíʔ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog
2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog
Line 1,291: Line 1,283:




/njí=bíʔ wáná=dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ wáná=dô̰k/


2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog
2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog
Line 1,298: Line 1,290:




/njí=bíʔ wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog
Line 1,307: Line 1,299:
===Conditional Mood===
===Conditional Mood===


This is used for situations which may not necessarily come true / have true, but are dependent on something else. It is marked with the proclitic /kau/ (or /kaw- before a vowel) e.g.
This is used for situations which may not necessarily come true / have true, but are dependent on something else. It is marked with the proclitic /kau/ (or /kaw- before a vowel). The origin of this proclitic is the Thai particle /kɔ̂ː/ e.g.




Line 1,336: Line 1,328:
===Hypothetical Mood===
===Hypothetical Mood===


The proclitic /nou/ (/now/ before a vowel) is used for hypothetical and counterfactual situations. It often corresponds to cases where English would use "if" e.g.
The proclitic /pʰí/ (/ípʰ/ before a vowel) is used for hypothetical and counterfactual situations. It often corresponds to cases where English would use "if" (which it is indeed cognate to) e.g.




/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/jéi=pí=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


2PS.INTR=HYP=depart
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart
Line 1,349: Line 1,341:




/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/
/jéi=pí=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/


2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone


If you leave, I / we (not including you) will be alone.
If you leave, I / we (not including you) will be alone.
Notice in both of the above sentences, Grassman's law has resulted in a loss of aspiration on the prefix, so /pʰí/ becomes /pí/




Line 1,370: Line 1,365:
===Reportative Evidential===
===Reportative Evidential===


If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g.
If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /sʰái/ (/sʰáj/ before a vowel) is used. This is etymologically related to English "say" e.g.


/dô̰k hízw=áˈlâṵn/
/dô̰k sʰáj=áˈlâṵn/


dog REP=alone
dog REP=alone
Line 1,379: Line 1,374:




/áˈlâṵn hí=dô̰k/
/áˈlâṵn sʰái=dô̰k/


alone REP=dog
alone REP=dog
Line 1,388: Line 1,383:
===Inferential Evidential===
===Inferential Evidential===


If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g.
If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel). This is etymologically related to English "guess" e.g.


/dô̰k gés=áˈlâṵn/
/dô̰k gés=áˈlâṵn/
Line 1,399: Line 1,394:
===Assumptive Mood===
===Assumptive Mood===


This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /hle/ (/hel/ before a vowel) e.g.
This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /mat/ (/mats/ before a vowel). This is etymologically related to English "does" e.g.


/sôṵlà hél=áʔp/
/sôṵlà máts=áʔp/


sun ASS=rise
sun ASS=rise
Line 1,416: Line 1,411:


The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it).
The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it).


===Interrogative Mood===
===Interrogative Mood===


This is used for polar questions (those expecting a yes/no answer). It is formed with the clitic /dú/ e.g.  
This is used for polar questions (those expecting a yes/no answer). It is formed with the clitic /dú/ (etymologically related to English "do") e.g.  




/njí=dú=bíʔ dô̰k/
/té=dú=bíʔ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,432: Line 1,426:
as well as
as well as


/dú=njí=bíʔ dô̰k/
/dú=té=bíʔ dô̰k/


POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog
POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog
Line 1,441: Line 1,435:
and
and


/njí=bíʔ dú=dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ dú=dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog
Line 1,450: Line 1,444:
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.


/njí=bíʔ dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog
Line 1,459: Line 1,453:
And adverbs e.g.
And adverbs e.g.


/njí=bíʔ dù=déiʔp dô̰k/
/té=bíʔ dù=déiʔp dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog
Line 1,468: Line 1,462:
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.


/njí=dúw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/
/té=dúw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog
Line 1,482: Line 1,476:
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
dog POLQ=bite lizard


Did the dog bite the lizard?
Did the dog bite the lizard?
Line 1,502: Line 1,496:
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
dog POLQ=bite lizard


Did the dog bite the lizard?
Did the dog bite the lizard?
Line 1,519: Line 1,513:
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
dog POLQ=bite lizard


Did the dog bite the lizard?
Did the dog bite the lizard?
Line 1,536: Line 1,530:
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
dog POLQ=bite lizard


Did the dog bite the lizard?
Did the dog bite the lizard?
Line 1,548: Line 1,542:




If the speaker believes the answer to be yes because of their experience with similar situations, or because it is general knowledge, they use the particle /hlḛ̂/ e.g.
If the speaker believes the answer to be yes because of their experience with similar situations, or because it is general knowledge, they use the particle /mà̤t/ e.g.




A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
dog POLQ=bite lizard


Did the dog bite the lizard?
Did the dog bite the lizard?




B) /hlḛ̂/
B) /mà̤t/


ASS
ASS
Line 1,565: Line 1,559:




If the question entails an assumption that the speaker wishes to deny the truth of, then a special particle /plàṳ/ is used e.g.
If the question entails an assumption that the speaker wishes to deny the truth of, then a special particle /pàṳ/ is used e.g.




Line 1,575: Line 1,569:




B) /plàṳ/
B) /pàṳ/


CHALLENGE.PRESUPPOSITION
CHALLENGE.PRESUPPOSITION
Line 1,587: Line 1,581:
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
dog POLQ=bite lizard


Did the dog bite the lizard?
Did the dog bite the lizard?
Line 1,597: Line 1,591:


I don't know either.
I don't know either.


==Wh-Questions==
==Wh-Questions==
Line 1,613: Line 1,605:
or
or


/ˈbwḛ̀lí=pʰwám bá=ˈdéˈpʰáʔɾ/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám bá=ˈdéˈpʰáʔɾ/


Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart
Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart
Line 1,634: Line 1,626:




/ˈsʰíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂p dô̰k=àuŋ/
/ˈsʰíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/


guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian Q.ACC=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give


Who / What did the guardian give to the dog?
Who / What did the guardian give to the dog?
Line 1,643: Line 1,635:
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.


/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=pʰwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/


enemy Q.ACC=from depart
enemy Q.ACC=from depart
Line 1,684: Line 1,676:
or
or


/θú=ˈbíʔ dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ éi=ˈhḛ̂b/
/ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ dô̰k éi=ˈhḛ̂b/


ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have
lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite dog Q.ERG=have


Whose dog bit the lizard? (literally "Who has the dog that bit the lizard?")
Whose dog bit the lizard? (literally "Who has the dog that bit the lizard?")


===Other Interrogatives that modify noun phrases===
===Other Interrogatives that modify noun phrases===
Line 1,703: Line 1,696:
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.


/θú=ˈbíʔ bá=dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ bá=dô̰k/


ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT
ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT
Line 1,710: Line 1,703:




Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/.
Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ/.




To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.
To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.


/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔ=kà bá=pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù dò̰k=gó ˈbíʔ=kà bá=pʰò̤wè /


lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which
lizard=ERG dog=DAT bite=LOC which=forest


Which forest did the lizard bite the dog in?
Which forest did the lizard bite the dog in?
Line 1,738: Line 1,731:
For example, from the sentence:
For example, from the sentence:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù hí=ˈsâ̰pè míʔnà/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè míʔnà/


mother=ERG REP=know everyone
mother=ERG REP=know everyone
Line 1,747: Line 1,740:
We can replace the object with a pronoun to get
We can replace the object with a pronoun to get


/múˈhḛ̂ lán=hí=ˈsâ̰pè/
/múˈhḛ̂ lé=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè/


mother 1PS.INCL.ACC=REP=know
mother 1PS.INCL.ACC=REP=know
Line 1,756: Line 1,749:
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.


/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard
Line 1,765: Line 1,758:
If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.  
If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.  


/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/


mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite
Line 1,778: Line 1,771:
And another example using a postposition:
And another example using a postposition:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard
Line 1,787: Line 1,780:
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk kʰḭ̂d wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk kʰḭ̂d wá=bàṵn=tá gá=gḭ̂p dô̰k/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
Line 1,794: Line 1,787:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk wá=bàṵn=tá gá=gḭ̂p dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak  INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog


The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone.
The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone.
Line 1,804: Line 1,797:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT  ANTIP=speak INDEF=bone=SEC give dog


The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker saw the act of giving).
The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker saw the act of giving).




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí hí=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk tí=bàṵn=tá sʰái=gḭ̂p dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak  INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog


The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone (the speaker didn't see the act of giving, but heard about it).
The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker didn't see the act of giving, but heard about it).




Line 1,824: Line 1,817:
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
Line 1,831: Line 1,824:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈpéiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=ˈpéiʔkðjíʔ tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog


The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the mother, either the child or someone else) gave the dog a bone.
The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the mother, either the child or someone else) gave the dog a bone.
Line 1,839: Line 1,832:
===Evidentials and Reported Speech===
===Evidentials and Reported Speech===


When reporting what someone else has said, both clauses need to marked for evidentiality, both from the point of view of the speaker e.g.
====Indirect Reported Speech====


In this case, when reporting what someone else has said, both clauses need to marked for evidentiality, both from the point of view of the speaker e.g.


/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ/


child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾá mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ/


The child told me the enemy departed (and I saw it happen too).
child SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
 
The child told me the enemy had departed (and I saw it happen too).




Line 1,852: Line 1,847:




/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm hí=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾá mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm sái=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 
child SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart
 
The child told me the enemy had departed (but I didn't see it, I just heard about it).
 
 
====Direct Reported Speech====
 
In this case, there is no superordinate verb marking. The quoted speech is places at the end of the sentence, preceded by the particle /ðéʔ/ and followed by the particle /tḛ̂/ e.g.
 
/ˈkʰḭ̂d mí=ˈpéiʔk ðéʔ ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ tḛ̂/
 
child 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak QUOTE enemy depart QUOTE
 
The child told me that the enemy had departed
 
 
In the above sentence, the speaker is saying the the child had used the direct evidential when reporting the enemy's departure, meaning that the speaker is reporting that the child implied that they had witnessed it themselves. This sentence conveys no information about whether or not the speaker had also seen the departure.
 
 
Compare:


child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart
/ˈkʰḭ̂d mí=ˈpéiʔk ðéʔ ˈḛ̂nèm sái=déˈpʰáʔɾ tḛ̂/


The child told me the enemy departed (but I didn't see it, I just heard about it).
child 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak QUOTE enemy REP=depart QUOTE


The child told me that he had heard that the enemy had departed (and not witnessed it himself).


==Comparative Constructions==
==Comparative Constructions==


To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.
To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /tʰáp/, where /tʰáp/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.


/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=téŋ zwéʔp/
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=tʰáp zwéʔp/


dog.TOP lizard=above fast
dog.TOP lizard=above fast


Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards").
Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards").
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