Is Burunking

Is Burunking
Is
Pronunciation	[[Help:IPA|is]]
Created by	Neil Whalley
Native to	Burung
Native speakers	? ()
Language family	language isolate
Official status
Official language in	Burung

Is Burunking (/is buɾˈunkiŋ/, literally 'Burungian language') is the language of Burung, an island in the north Atlantic Ocean.

Phonology

Consonants

	Bilabial	Alveolar	Post-alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m	n				ŋ
Plosive	p    b	t    d				k    g
Fricative	ɸ	s	ʃ	ʐ	ç		h
Affricate			t͡ʃ    d͡ʒ
Flap or tap		ɾ
Approximant	w				j
Lateral app.	l

Consonants generally do not occur in clusters, with some exceptions (see Phonotactics below). Any consonant except a fricative may occur as a geminate word-internally.

Vowels

	Front	Back
Close	i	u
Open-mid	ɛ	ɔ
Open	a

Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in eekez 'left' /ɛːkɛz/.

Note: word-initial sequences of i + i and u + uu are written yi-, wu-.

Diphthongs

There are six diphthongs proper: ai /ai/, ei /ei/, oi /oi/, au /au/, eu /eu/ and ou /ou/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.

Phonotactics

Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:

C1	G	V1	V2	C2
optional only b, g, d, z, f, j, h, x, l, n, ng or m word-initially any consonant word-medially	optional only y or w/u	mandatory any vowel	optional only i, u or the preceding vowel repeated	optional only s, sh, ng or z word-finally only n or m before a consonant, except in the case of geminates

The word-final consonants s, sh, ng and z are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:

• -s is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive is devoiced:

is 'language, speech' + -do (pejorative) = yito 'curse'

os 'cold' + -pung (abstract) = oopung 'coldness'

• -sh becomes -i-, forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced:

banash 'fruit' + -to (diminutive) = banaito 'berry'

ush 'empty' + gyong 'person' = wikyong 'vain person'

• -ng becomes -m before p, b, f and n before any other consonant:

gyong 'person' + -zoi (collective) = gyonzoi 'team, band'

yong 'smooth' + -pung (abstract) = yompung 'smoothness'

• -z is lost and causes a following consonant to double (except s, z, f, x, h):

az 'man' + -chi (adjectival) = acchi 'masculine'

haaz 'old' + -ki (nominal) = haakki 'antique, relic'

Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings:

• In words of three or more syllables, the vowel is always lost, e.g. arato 'food' + -oi (adjectival) = aratoi 'gluttonous', eshayo 'sea' + ugi 'bread' = eshayugi 'seaweed'.
• Words of two syllables usually lose their final vowel, e.g. binji 'mountain' + arate 'gap' = binjarate 'mountain pass', but when the second word is only one syllable the final vowel sometimes remains, forming a glide in the case of i or u e.g. bigi 'eye' + uz 'water' = bigyuz 'tear'.
• In reduplication, the final vowel usually remains in disyllables, but an epenthetic k (occasionally y) is inserted between the elements: azekaze 'very dark'.

Stress

Primary stress is generally on the penultimate syllable of polysyllables, e.g. berósu 'nine', esháyo 'sea', ázeng 'fish'.

Orthography

Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called hookozoi, mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.

When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.

Graph	IPA
Consonants
b	/b/
ch	/t͡ʃ/
d	/d/
f	/ɸ/
g	/g/
h	/h/
j	/d͡ʒ/
k	/k/
l	/l/
m	/m/
n	/n/
ng	/ŋ/
p	/p/
r	/r/
s	/s/
sh	/ʃ/
t	/t/
w	/w/
x	/ç/
y	/j/
Vowels
a	/a/
e	/ɛ/
i	/i/
o	/ɔ/
u	/u/
Diphthongs
ai	/ai/
au	/au/
ei	/ei/
eu	/eu/
oi	/oi/
ou	/ou/

In word or syllable initial position the sequences ii, uu are written yi, wu. The glide /j/ is always written y but /w/ is written u following a consonant and w syllable initially.

Grammar

Nouns

Gender

Strictly speaking, Is Burunking, like English, does not have grammatical gender affecting the morphology of words. Their concept of natural gender, however, is substantially different from many other cultures and does influence language to certain extent. It is rooted in a more fundamental understanding of how things in the world are related and categorised.

At its most basic, all things (and the names that describe them) are considered either animate (bixi) or inanimate (es bixi). The primary distinction between these two groups is that animate nouns are capable of movement under their own power, but inanimate ones are not. Humans, animals and deities are therefore considered animate (as are some celestial bodies), whereas plants, rocks and abstract concepts are inanimate.

Within the class of animate nouns, a further distinction is made between three genders: masculine (acchi), feminine (buyachi) or middle (iriji). Inclusion within one of these three groups is based to some extent on biological sex, but also takes into account personality, strengths and a chosen role within society.

At birth, all human children are considered to be iriji and remain so throughout childhood until the onset of puberty. At some point during puberty, depending on the development of the individual, the child will be undergo an initiation into adulthood as either acchi, buyachi or iriji, taking a gendered form of their name and a byname to symbolise this important rite of passage. The choice of appropriate gender is made by the community elders, with input from the parents and/or foster parents, based on an understanding of the individual.

There are no hard and fast rules regarding gender, rather each has a series of complex associations. The table below shows some of the basic characteristics for each group:

	Bixi	Eipixi
Buyachi	Iriji	Achi
Element	Earth	Fire	Water	Air
Direction	East	South	West	North
Season	Spring	Summer	Autumn	Winter
Celestial Body	Moon	Sun	Moon	Sun
Lunar Phase	Waxing	Full	Waning	New
Solar Phase	Dawn	Day	Evening	Night
Temperature	Warm/Wet	Hot/Dry	Cool/Wet	Cold/Dry
Family	Mother	Child	Father	House
Aspect	Emotional	Intellectual	Physical	Material
Noun class	adult female humans some female animals female deities	human children adult iriji humans most animals iriji deities	adult male humans some male animals male deities	unmoving objects most materials abstracts

These gender distinctions have a limited effect on the morphology of nouns themselves but affect the way other words behave.

Case

Relationships between nouns in a sentence are marked by particles following the noun.

Case	Particle	Uses
Topicaliser	ba	marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance
Nominative	az	marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)
Accusative	ke	marks the direct object of a verb
Genitive	eng	marks the possessor of an object, 'of'
Dative	ni	marks the indirect object of a verb, 'to'
Allative	a	marks movement towards, 'to'
Ablative	chi	marks movement away from, 'from, of, through'
Locative	gang	marks location 'in, on, at'
Instrumental	ha	marks use of, 'with, by'

Number

Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether heuji means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. bade oz 'one dog, a dog'.

There are two collective suffixes, which may sometimes translate the English plural: -zoi is used to refer to a group of things, usually within a single place, e.g. gyonzoi 'band, group, team of people', heujizoi 'a herd of horses'; -bua is more abstract, referring to all things within a class collectively and also to the state of being an object within that class, similar in some ways to the English suffix '-hood' in a word like 'priesthood', e.g. gyombua 'everybody, humanity, humankind, population', binjibua 'mountains'. Both of these suffixes are productive, though in some cases the noun with the suffix has taken on a specialised meaning as in azoi 'council, assembly' from az 'man'. Reduplication may also be used to express a large group of something, often with an intensive meaning, e.g. gyongyong 'crowd, mass of people', yaiyai 'storm' (from yai 'wind').

Adjectives

Adjectives precede the noun they modify and are not altered for gender, number or case.

Comparison is expressed by means of particles. The comparative uses the particle byang, somewhat equivalent to Eng. "than", with a noun (standard) of comparison and the positive adjective. Where English uses the pattern [Noun 1] is [Comparative] + than + [Noun 2] (e.g. Eric is bigger than Tom), Is Burunking uses the pattern [Noun 1] + [Noun 2] + byang + [Adjective] + da (e.g. Eric ba Tom byang enji da). There is no equivalent to the English attributive comparative adjective and phrases such as "Eric is the taller brother" would be translated best with the positive adjective, e.g. Eric ba enji angane da lit. "Eric is the tall sibling".

Superlatives are formed from the positive adjective with the suffix -na and precede the noun they modify, e.g. enjina az "biggest man", lashana ebaz "quietest river". The usual sentence structure follows the pattern [Topic] + ba (+ [Location] + gang) + [Superlative] + [Noun] + da, e.g. Eric ba (Burung gang) enjina az da "Eric is the tallest man (in Burung).

Numerals

	Cardinal	Ordinal
1	zu	leneng
2	hai	uzeng
3	gi	gichi
4	baka	bakachi
5	utu	utuchi
6	xa	xachi
7	gyeng	gyenchi
8	eileng	eilenchi
9	zuneng	zunenchi
10	haz	hachi
11	zu-haz	zu-hachi
20	hatorung	hatorunchi
21	zu-hatorung	zu-hatorunchi
30	gyauka	gyaukachi
40	bakauka	bakaukachi
50	utauka	utaukachi
60	xauka	xaukachi
70	gyengauka	gyengaukachi
80	eilengauka	eilengaukachi
90	zunengauka	zunengaukachi
100	inung	inunchi
101	zu-inung	zu-inunchi
121	zu-hatorung-inung	zu-hatorung-inunchi

Pronouns

Personal

		Singular	Plural
1	inclusive	ni	bua
	exclusive		bu
2		yi	fu
3	masculine	az	azoi
	feminine	buya	buyazoi
	common	xini	xinizoi

There are no inanimate forms, the demonstrative pronoun ong being used instead.

Possessives may be formed with the particle eng, e.g. ni eng yata "my father", xini eng eshe "its house".

Reflexive

The reflexive pronoun bera is used as the direct or indirect object of a verb, referring the action back to the subject. The pronoun doesn't change for person or number and simply fills the relevant object slot of the sentence, e.g. az ba bera ke bigiipush fong "he saw himself", ni eng asho ba bera ni inua da "my grandma talks to herself". It is usually only used with animate subjects.

Demonstratives

There are three series of demonstratives expressing three degrees of proximity:

• ong "this" denotes objects close to the speaker
• uri "that" (proximal) denotes objects close to the hearer
• ang "that" (distal) denotes objects at a distance or abstract

	this ong	that (prox.) uri	that (dist.) ang
Object (inan.)	ong this	uri that	ang that yonder
person	m	azong that man	azuri that man	azang that man yonder
f.	buyong this woman	buyuri that woman	buyang that woman yonder
c.	xinyong this xini	xinyuri that xini	xinyang that xini yonder
Place	ukyong here	ukyuri there	ukyang yonder
Way	bideung this way	bideuri that way	bideeng that way yonder
Time	eujong now	eujuri then (recent)	eujang then (distant)

These forms are all really pronouns, but they may perform adjectival or adverbial functions. The simple forms ong, uri, ang are used as adjectives following a noun, e.g. eshe uri "that house". As pronouns, these are used with inanimate objects and the 'person' forms are used with animates, agreeing in gender with the (natural) gender of the object, e.g. ang ba ni eng eshe da "that is my house", azong ba buya eng yata da "this (man) is her father".

The 'place', 'way' and 'time' forms function as adverbs when they take the appropriate case particle, e.g. andosh ba ukyong a etozi heng "the king came here", eujong gang ni ba yus zu "I am leaving now".

Interrogative

Interrogative pronouns and adverbs are formed with the prefix n(o)- and a nominal element:

what	nohez
who	nogyong
where	nuki
how	nobide
why	nonaze
when	neuji

These interrogatives may take postpositions such as nogyong go 'whose'

Indefinite

Indefinite pronouns are formed using the same nominal elements as the interrogative pronouns, but with different affixes.

	some- (-do)	any- (eno-)	every- (-bua)
-thing	hedo	enohez	hebua
-one, -body	gyondo	enogyong	gyombua
-where	ukido	enuki	ukibua
-how	bidedo	enobide	bidebua
(reason)	nazedo	enonaze	nazebua
-time	eujido	eneuji	eujibua

The 'any-' forms are also used as the equivalent of English pronouns with '-ever', e.g. enobide 'however', enogyong 'whoever'. They are also employed in negative sentences to mean 'no-one', 'nowhere' etc.

Verbs

Burungian verbs are conjugated for aspect, tense, mood and valency primarily by suffixes added to the verb stem. Person, gender and number are not marked on verbs. The table below shows the maximal structure of the verb.

Prefix	0	I	II	III	IV	V
Verbal noun Causative Pejorative	Root	Applicative	Aspect	Modal	Conditional	Tense/Mood

Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria:

• Tense: present or non-present
• Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative
• Aspect: imperfective or perfective
• Valency: transitive, intransitive, applicative or causative.

Only a handful of verbs (called the true verbs) actually allow conjugation in this way and the majority of these are used to describe basic actions or states, including a wide range of verbs associated with motion along a specific path, a number associated with basic human functions and a handful of others. These true verbs are a closed class and there is no recorded instance of a new true verb coming into existence. The majority of verbs exist only in non-finite forms and form compound verbs with the true verbs as auxiliary; each auxiliary offering a different meaning. Other parts of speech, including nouns, adjectives and adverbs, can also be compounded with auxiliaries, offering relatively free reign for creating new verbs.

Verb Stems

The basic part of a verb, which conveys its primary meaning, is the root, e.g. -ang- "eat", -toz- "move up to". Burungian verbal roots cannot occur independently; they must be accompanied by at least one prefix or be the second element in a compound. The most common prefix, which effectively makes a verbal noun from the root, occurs as e-, i- or y-, e.g. yang "eat", etoz "move up to". This prefix occurs in both true verbs and in non-conjugable verbal nouns, e.g. yosh "sew", enoros "bury, plant".

The root of a true verb may be reduplicated to show intensive or frequentative meaning, e.g. ewaiwash "collapse, drop" < ewash "go down", inuanua "babble, chatter" < inua "speak".

The verbal noun prefix (e-, i-, y-) may be replaced by ena- to form a pejorative verb indicating perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. enaro "molest" < ero "touch", enaus "flee, escape" < yus "move away".

Verbal Aspect

There are only two aspects within Burungian verbs, the imperfect and the perfect. The imperfective indicates that the action of the verb is ongoing, either in a continuous sense or in a more general, gnomic sense and it is shown by the simple form of the verb stem, e.g. yang "eating, eats".

The perfective indicates that the action of a verb has been completed and is shown with the addition of the suffix -i to the imperfect verb, e.g. yangi "eaten", erayekii "built".

Valency

Suffixes added to the imperfect or perfect stem indicate a mixture of tense, mood and valency. Separate endings exist for transitive and intransitive verbs. Depending on the semantics of the verbal stem, verbs may take one or other set of endings, or both according to meaning.

The causative is created with the prefix era-, replacing verbal noun e-, i-, y-, e.g. erakash "teach" < ekash "learn", erayeki "build, erect" < eyeki "stand". The causative verb must take the transitive endings in conjugation.

Note: When a verb is made causative, the agent of the original verb is marked by the dative (whether the original is intransitive or transitive). The direct object of an original transitive verb remains in the accusative. E.g. ni ba (Faransekyo ke) ekaita "I am learning (French)" → Kitzu ba (Faransekyo ke) ni ni erakaita Christophe is teaching me (French).

An applicative affix -ki- may be added to the verb stem to promote the indirect object (dative) of the verb to the direct object (accusative). The resulting direct object indicates the benefactor, malefactor, recipient, purpose or goal of the verb, depending on context and the meaning of the verb. The affix may be added to an intransitive verb, creating a transitive, or to a transitive verb creating a either ditransitive, in which both objects take the accusative, or another transitive verb in which the original direct object is incorporated or unexpressed. E.g. erakaiki "teach (someone)", iniirakaiki "teach (someone) hunting", aratobanki "feed (someone)".

Tense and Mood

Tense and mood are interlinked through a series of suffixes, given below, which are added to either the imperfective or perfective stem:

Function	Intransitive	Transitive	Usage with Imperfective or Perfective
Present	da	zu	Impf: denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. egoizu "cooks, is cooking, will cook". Perf: denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. egoshizu "has cooked".
Past	heng	fong	Impf: denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. egoifong "was cooking" Perf: denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. egoshifong "had cooked".
Hypothetical	li	lu	Impf: denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. egoilu "may be cooking". Perf: denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. egoshilu "may have cooked".
Hortative	bii	byo	Used only with the Impf. or an entreaty, e.g. egoipyo "let's cook"
Imperative	--	--	Used only with the Impf. to give a direct command, e.g. egosh! "cook!"

Modals

Modality is expressed by a series of infixes placed after the stem. Modal verbs are always conjugated with the -zu (transitive) series of endings, even when they are semantically intransitive, e.g. ni ba ekaineizu "I want to learn", fu ba logimbeezu "you need to sleep".

Particle	Meaning	Uses
-nau-	can, may	expresses ability, including cabability, knowledge how and ability according to circumstances
-bee-	must, need	expresses necessity
-nei-	want	expresses desire to do something

Conditional -ba-

The conditional infix -ba- is effectively the equivalent of the English 'if', inserted between the stem and the tense/mood suffix. It may be added to the imperfective or perfective stem and used with the present, past and hypothetical suffixes. E.g. esuambada "if (he) is lying down", egosibafong "if (he) had thrown", ilubali "if (he) were dying".

True Verbs

ibii move	Perfective ibiyi
Intransitive	travel, flow, run
Auxiliary
ebang move up	Perfective ebangi
Intransitive	move up, ascend, rise; grow; improve
Transitive	ascend sth
Auxiliary
eroz move down	Perfective erozi
Intransitive	move down, descend; fall; worsen
Transitive	descend sth
Auxiliary
isuru move past	Perfective isurui
Transitive	pass, traverse, move through, move across, move under, move beside
Auxiliary
ero touch	Perfective eroi
Transitive	touch, come into contact, rub
Auxiliary
etoz move up to	Perfective etozi
Intransitive	come, arrive
Transitive	come to, arrive at, reach
Auxiliary
yus move away from	Perfective yusi
Intransitive	leave, go away
Transitive	leave sth, move away from
Auxiliary
euging come	Perfective eugingi
Intransitive	come, approach
Transitive	move towards, approach sth (from swh)
Auxiliary
ewang go	Perfective ewangi
Intransitive	go, move away
Transitive	move away from, go from (towards)
Auxiliary
exaz move in	Perfective exazi
Intransitive	come in, go in, move in, enter
Transitive	move into, penetrate, enter
Auxiliary
yuki move out	Perfective yukii
Intransitive	move out, leave, exit
Transitive	move out of, leave sth, exit
Auxiliary
egong remain	Perfective egongi
Intransitive	remain, wait, stay, dwell; continue, persist
Transitive
Auxiliary	noun + -gong	be a
adj. + -gong	be (in a state)
yaz sit	Perfective yazi
Intransitive	sit, be located, be situated
Transitive	set, put, place
Auxiliary
esuang lie	Perfective esuangi
Intransitive	lie (down), be located horizontally
Transitive	lay
Auxiliary
eyeki stand	Perfective eyekii
Intransitive	stand, be located vertically
Transitive	stand sth
Auxiliary
yehang be	Perfective yehangi
Intransitive	be, exist
Transitive	be sth
Auxiliary

Compound Verbs

By far the majority of Burungian verbs are formed by compounding one of the true verbs with another part of speech, a verb, noun, adjective or adverb. The true verb is always the last element in the compound and loses the verbal noun prefix e-, i-, y- or reduces the prefixes era- and ena- to ra-, na-. The initial element usually precedes the verb directly, undergoing any of the usual sound changes in compounds, e.g. ootoz "go cold" < os + etoz.

• Verb + Verb, in which the first verb modifies the sense of the second

Final Particles

Particle	Meaning	Uses
au	interrogative	asks simple yes/no questions, e.g. yi ka ewang au-da? "are you going?"
ba	assertive	emphasises the point and expresses strongly
te	uncertainty	expresses uncertainty about the action of the verb, e.g. ngane ka loging te-da "perhaps he is sleeping"
meng	hearsay	indicates that the speaker does not know in person, e.g. ngange ka loging meng-da "I heard he is sleeping"

Verb	Primary	Secondary	Key Derivatives
Verbs of Motion
ibii	(vi.) move (without reference to path)	travel; flow	erabii (vt.) drive, goad, propel, impel
egang	(vi.) go up	rise, improve; grow	eragang (vt.) improve; raise, lift
(vt.) go up	ascend, climb
ewash	(vi.) go down	descend, fall; deteriorate	enawash (vi.) fall erawash (vt.) fell, drop
(vt.) go down sth	descend
isuru	(vt.) move past	move beside/under/over/through
ero	(vt.) come into contact with sth	touch, rub	eroro (vt.) hit, strike enaro (vt.) molest, grope
ero	(vt.) come into contact with sth	touch, rub	eroro (vt.) hit, strike enaro (vt.) molest, grope
etoz	(vi.) move (up to sth)	come; approach, reach; arrive
yus	(vt.) move away (from sth)	go, leave	enaus (vt.) abandon, flee from
euging	(vt.) come (from-to)
ewang	(vi.) go (to-from)
exaz	(vt.) move into	enter, penetrate	enaxaz (vt.) infiltrate, violate
yuki	(vt.) move out of	exit, leave
Verbs of Location & State
egong	(vi.) remain	wait, stay; dwell; rest	eragong keep, detain, maintain
ebeng	(vi.) sit	be located, be situated	erabeng (vt.) put, place, establish, fix
(vt.) set	put, place, set down
esuang	(vi.) lie (down)	be located horizontally; spread out, extend	enasuang (vt.) block, obstruct
(vt.) lay
eyeki	(vi.) stand	be located vertically	erakash (vt.) build, erect
(vt.) stand sth up
yehang	(vi.) be	exist, live
Change of State
egosh	(vi.) heat	cook, boil, warm
(vt.) heat	cook, boil, warm	enagosh burn, overcook
eresh	(vi.) constrict	narrow, shrink, tighten
(vt.) constrict sth	press, squeeze	ereiresh (vt.) crush enaresh (vt.) restrain, constrain
exoz	(vt.) begin sth	beget, produce, create, conceive
iji	(vi.) appear	come into view; seem, look like
(vt.) show	explain, illustrate
ilu	(vi.) die	break, stop, cease	eralu (vt.) kill, break ilulu (vi.) die
iluaz	(vi.) spread	scatter, disperse	eraluaz (vt.) cause to scatter, dispel
(vt.) spread sth	scatter, disperse, distribute
yata	(vi.) happen		eraata (vt.) cause sth to happen, instigate enaata (vi.) befall
Verbs of Action
eba	(vt.) incise	cut, scratch, carve; mark	ebaba (vt.) hack; enaba (vt.) slash, wound
ebang	(vt.) give	offer, pay; provide
ebei	(vi.) come together	assemble, congregate, swarm, herd	enabei swarm, throng
(vt.) bring together	collect, gather, assemble; herd	ebeibei hoard, amass
egos	(vt.) throw	shoot, cast; release
elaz	(vt.) divide sth	split; separate
ewas	(vi.) step	pace, tread; measure	ewaawas (vt.) trample, trod enawas (vi.) misstep, stumble
iging	(vt.) make, do
ilung	(vt.) hold	have, possess; use
inua	(vi.) speak	make a sound, resound	eranua (vt.) ring, play
(vt.) say sth	speak sth, make a sound
izung	(vi. & vt.) expel	defecate, emit; reject	enazung (vi. & vt.) vomit, abort
yang	(vt.) take in	consume, eat, drink; receive, accept
yosh	(vt.) puncture	pierce	enaush (vt.) stab
egas	(vt.) get	obtain, receive; understand	eragas (vt.) explain, inform; give
Verbs of Perception
ekash	(vi.) obtain knowledge	learn, comprehend	ekaikash (vi.) study erakash (vt.) teach , educate, instruct s.o. erakaiki (vt.) teach sth
(vt.) obtain knowledge of sth	learn sth
ipush	(vt.) perceive	know; sense
ishi	(vt.) regard	consider, think; view

Compound Verbs

The range of meaning of each true verb is extended considerably by compounding with other forms, according to a few simple rules. In each case the other element precedes the main verb and the meaningless prefix of the base form is lost (era-, ena- are also reduced to -ra-, -na-).

• Noun + Verb in which the noun denotes the direct object of the verb, e.g. burushigos "to throw a spear", bazenua "to laugh" (lit. "to say laughter" < baze "laughter").
  • In many cases the first element is effectively a verbal noun, which is usually followed by -ging "do", e.g. loging "to sleep" (lo "sleep, sleeping"), ezeging "to burn" (eze "burning").
  • Any action denoting the making of sound is created with -nua "speak", e.g. xennua "to name, to call" (xeng "name"), ozonua "to roar, bellow" (ozo "roaring").
  • -lung "have" is used to denote possession of characteristics or emotions, e.g. neilung "to desire" (nei "desire, want").

• • Where the noun is the true direct object, the resulting verb becomes intransitive (note the difference between burushi ke egos zu "throwing a spear" (trans.) and burushigos da (intrans.)). However, in many cases the incorporated noun is a generic object extending the sense of the verb. Where a more specific direct object is required, the verb remains transitive. Consider the following sentences

Ama ba arato ke omba ni ebang zu
mother-TOP food-ACC child-DAT give PRT.pres.trans
"A mother gives food to a child" (no incorporation)

Ama ba omba ni aratobang da
mother-TOP child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.intrans
"A mother gives food to (feeds) a child"

In the second example the verb is intransitive and the direct object slot remains empty. It may be filled by a specific type of food, and the verb must become transitive:

Ama ba heene ke omba ni aratobang zu
mother-TOP milk-ACC child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.trans
"A mother feeds milk to a child"

Where there is no specific direct object, the natural indirect object may be promoted to the grammatical object (taking ke) by the addition of the suffix -ki to the end of the verb. This has the effect of creating a more intimate relationship between the subject and object:

Ama ba ombe ke aratobanki zu
mother-TOP child-ACC food-give PRT.pres.trans
"A mother feeds a child"

• Adjective + Verb to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, depending on the verb used:
  • -toz "come" means "become, turn", e.g. furitoz "turn white" (furi "white"), eregitoz "lighten" (eregi "light").
  • -ging "make" is a transitive verb meaning "to turn ...", e.g. beleeking "make dark" (beles "black").
  • -shi "consider, view" forms verbs referring to the subject's opinion of something, e.g. onshi "like, approve of" (ong "good), xinshi "believe" (xing "true").
• Verb + Verb in which the first verb modifies the sense of the second.
• Adverb + Verb in which the adverbs denotes the method, direction or means of doing the action.
  • An adverb derived from a noun plus the adverbial suffix -(e)s may precede a verb to show the instrument by which the action is achieved, e.g. wengeepii "walk" (weng "foot" + ibii "move"), aneetoopa "cut with knife" (aneeto "knife" + eba "cut, incise").
  • An adverb consisting of an adjective + -ki may precede a verb to denote manner, e.g. laitekibii "move quickly" (laitez "quick"), byukinua "to babble, speak in tongues" (byuz "twisted").

Postpositions

Spatial relations are largely expressed by means of the case particles, but additional senses can be expressed by nominal elements in combination with the gentive eng and the locative gang. A concise list of forms expressing spatial relations is given below.

Simple Particles
a	to, towards, up to	buya ba ibya a ewangi heng "the woman went to the river"
chi	from, of, off, through	ni eng asho binji chi ewashi heng "my grandmother came down from the mountain"
gang	in, on, at	arato ba jibang gang da "the food is on the floor"
ha	with, by	eba byo aneeto ha "cut it with a knife!"
heez	across, over, beyond
ni	to (recipient), for (purpose, intent)
ta	with (comitative)
Compounds with eng ... gang
auda	beside, by
bee	under, below, beneath
beekaz	behind, at the back of, after
bozu	inside
geeng	outside
gyang	on top of, on
iriji	in the middle of, inside
waz	in front of, before

Derivation

Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding.

Suffix	Use	Example
Adjectives
-chi	(nouns) 'of, like, pertaining to; full of, covered with'	buyachi "feminine, female" (buya "woman"), busochi "shitty"
-dazi	(noun) 'of a person/thing from, -ian, -ese'	binjidazi 'of a mountain-dweller'
-i	(nouns) 'having the characteristics of' (verbs) perfective participle	eechii "sweet" (eechi "honey") inuai "said" (inua "say")
-jing	(nouns) 'resembling' (often pejorative)	ajing "man-like" (az "man")
-king	(nouns) 'of, relating to'	Burunking "of Burung"
-oi	(nouns) tending to, fond of	aratoi "gluttonous" (arato "food")
-ri	(nouns) forms colour adjectives	odouri "red" (odoi "blood")
Nouns
-bua	(nouns) collective, abstract	gyombua "people, population; humanity" (gyong "person")
-daz	(noun) person or thing from	eshayodaz 'foreigner' (eshayo "sea")
-do	(nouns) pejorative	bazedo "mocking laughter" (baze "laughter")
-iri	(nouns) thing connected with, found near	yipuiri "glove" (yipu "hand")
-ki	(adjectives) concrete noun	bixiki "living thing" (bixi "alive")
-ko	(nouns) instrument, person connected with (verbs) agent, instrument, tool	goudeko "ploughman" (goude "plough") exooko "creator"
-no	(nouns) diminutive (often pejorative)	ano "coward" (az "man")
-te	(adjectives) abstracts, states	bixite "life" (bixi "alive")
-to	(nouns) diminutive	hizito 'piglet' (hizi "pig")
-zoi	(nouns) collective, group	eshezoi "settlement" (eshe "house")
-zung	(nouns) possessor of	ombazung "parent" (omba "child")

Summary of Particles

a	allative "to, towards, up to"
Noun	az az	Example
au	interrogative, precedes auxiliary verb
Aux. Vb.	Example	Example
az	nominative
Noun	Example	Example
ba1	topicaliser
Noun	Example	Example
ba2	conditional "if"
Aux. Vb.	Example	Example
chi	ablative, "from, off, of, through"
Noun	Example	Example
eng	genitive, "of"
Noun	Example	Example
gang	locative, "in, on, at"
Aux. Vb.	Example	Example
ha	instrumental, "by, with", "in" (with languages)
Noun (language)	Lating ha	"in Latin"
heez	"across, over, beyond, past"
Noun	Example	Example
ke	accusative
Noun	Example	Example
meng	hearsay, precedes auxiliary verb
Aux. Vb.	Example	Example
ni	dative, "to" (recipient), "for" (purpose)
Aux. Vb.	Example	Example
ta	comitative, "with", "and"
Noun	ni az ni eng buya ta egong da	"I live with my wife"
Noun
te	uncertainty, precedes auxiliary verb
Aux. Vb.	Example	Example

Vocabulary

Kinship Terms

In Burungian society, each individual belongs to a broad group known as an yenu "tribe" and within that to a family group called an as "clan", the members of which claim matrilineal descent from a pair of common ancestors known as the heuji (male) and beus (female). A person belonging to the same clan is called a beraako, whilst anyone beyond the clan group is an ase.

Somewhat distinct from the clan group is an individual's close family group, known as osunka "kinsmen". While a person traces his clan group as a vertical line, descending through a series of individuals, his osunka is more like a network extending in every direction. Anyone who shares a common great-grandfather (araato) or great-grandmother (ashoto) with a person is considered his angade "relative, kinsman". Within this family group there are then three degrees of proximity, which restrict such things as marriage and are relevant in the inheritance of property:

1. Exoolaing, the direct line (lit. 'line of begetting'), includes a person and his direct ancestors (parents, grandparents and great-grandparents) and descendants (children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren). Marriage and sexual relationships are strictly prohibited within the exoolaing.
2. Yipugyong, the secondary line, includes a person's siblings and their children, their spouse and their spouse's parents and children, and their parent's siblings or spouses. Half-siblings are not distinguished from full siblings as they still contain one parent's blood. Step-parents are considered identical in relation to parents-in-law and step-children to children-in-law. Marriage within this line is prohibited (except in the case of spouses), but sexual relationships are not.
3. Audagyong, the side line, includes anyone descended from a great-grandparent not included in the above, and anyone within a spouse's secondary line. There are no prohibitions regarding marriage or sexual relationships between these people.

Within these three groups, distinctions are then made by generation, and, in some instances, by gender.

	1st Degree	2nd Degree	3rd Degree
Gen. -3	great-grandfather: araato great-grandmother: ashoto		other older collateral relative: asaba
Gen. -2	grandfather: aras grandmother: asho
Gen -1	father: yata mother: ama	parent's brother: xoba parent's sister: xeba parent's sibling (iriji): hanauba father-in-law, step-father: neba mother-in-law, step-mother: aneepa
Gen. 0	EGO: NI	husband: az, xengaz wife: buya, xengaz older sibling: angane younger sibling: azeba	other same-generation relative: xingangade
Gen. +1	child: omba	nephew/niece: yoba step-child, son/daughter-in-law: ezang	other younger collateral relative: xuni
Gen. +2	grandchild: xemba
Gen. +3	great-grandchild: xembato