Daùnare

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Introduction

Phonology

Vowels

Front Near-front Central Near-back Back
Close
Blank vowel trapezoid.svg
i, iː
u, uː
[ɪ]
[ʊ]
e, eː
o, oː
ɛ, ɛː
[ʌ]
a, aː
Near‑close
Close‑mid
Mid
Open‑mid
Near‑open
Open

Diphthongs

Final vowel
Initial vowel ↓ ɪ ʊ ʌ
ɛ ɛɪ̯ ɛʊ̯
a aɪ̯ aʊ̯
o oɪ̯ oʌ̯
u uɪ̯ uʌ̯
e eʊ̯ eʌ̯
i iʊ̯ iʌ̯

Iotified vowels

ɪ̯ɛ ɪ̯a ɪ̯o ɪ̯u

Labialised vowels

ʊ̯ɛ ʊ̯a ʊ̯e ʊ̯i

Vowel reduction

In unstressed syllables, short monophthongs:

  • /e, i/ → ɪ
  • /o, u/ → ʊ
  • /a, ɛ/ → ʌ

Consonants

Onset clusters

Coda clusters

Allophony

Syllable structure

Syllabic anaptyxis

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Orthography

Morphophonology

Morphophonology of verbs

Voice apophony

Theme vowel Grade 0
Grade 1
anti
Grade 2
mid
a a e o
ā ē ō
ū
ą ę ǫ
ă ĕ
æ o a
ǣ ō ā
o o e u
ō ē ū
ǫ ę ų
e e u a
ē ū ā
ō
ǫ
ĕ ă
ę ų ą
u u i e
ū ī ē
ĭ
ų ę
i i a u
ī ā ū
ą
ų
ĭ ă

Thematic anaptyxis

Morphophonology of nouns

Class-dependent anaptyxis

Methelcystic t and the definite clitic

Initial consonant mutations after modal particles

Derivational morphology

Derivational noun class

Noun compounding

Affix derivation of nouns

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Affix derivation of verbs

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Affix derivation of adjectives (and adverbs)

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Inflectional morphology

Nouns

Daùnare nouns decline according to noun class (also called gender), number, and case. There are four classes, each declining for either three or two numbers as shown below (an asterisk* indicates the default/undifferentiated form).

  • Masculine (singular,* dual, plural)
  • Feminine (singular,* dual, plural)
  • Concrete (singular,* dual, plural)
  • Abstract (collective,* singulative)

However, in many ways the abstract singulative can be regarded more as a derivational than inflectional process, as it isn't universally productive (there are many collective-only abstract nouns).

Masculine, feminine, and concrete nouns decline for six cases: absolutive, ergative, dative, genitive, ablative, and vocative. Abstract nouns feature the same cases except for the vocative, i.e. a total of five. Declension suffixes are shown in the table below – for an overview of what the parenthesised letters indicate, please see the above sections on →class-dependent anaptyxis and the →methelcystic t and the definite clitic.

Declension table (most nouns)
masculine feminine concrete abstract
sg dl pl sg dl pl sg dl pl col sgv
abs -(t)an -(t)aın -(t)ana -(i)ni -(i)nis -(t)in -(t)en -(t)eın -(t)ene -(u)nu -(t)unu
erg -(t)as -(t)aıs -(t)ara -(t)i -(t)is -(t)ir -(t)es -(t)eıs -(t)ere -(t)u -(t)uru
dat -(t)am -(t)aım -(t)ama -(i)mi -(i)mis -(t)im -(t)em -(t)eım -(t)eme -(u)mu -(t)umu
gen -(t)ar -(t)ari -(t)ā -(i)ri -(i)ris -(t)ī -(t)er -(t)eri -(t)ē -(u)ru -(t)ū
abl -(t)al -(t)aıl -(i)li -(i)lis -(t)el -(t)eıl -(u)lu -(t)ul
voc -(t)a -(t)aı -(t)īs -(t)īr -(t)e -(t)eı

Some singulative abstract nouns have been reanalysed as concrete nouns (known as concretised nouns). These follow a special uncountable declension:

Concretised nouns
abs -(t)uın
erg -(t)uruıs
dat -(t)uım
gen -(t)uri
abl -(t)uli

Definiteness is expressed using the definite clitic, for which see above (→methelcystic t and the definite clitic).

Verbs

Tense and aspect

The "default" (unmarked) aspect of the present and future tenses is the gnomic or simple aspect (by convention, the nomenclature is gnomic present but future simple). A progressive aspect can be expressed through the regular suffix ⟨-ta⟩ affixed to the base declension of both tenses, and a perfect aspect only in the future tense through the suffixes ⟨-bi⟩ (first person), ⟨-si⟩ (second person) and ⟨-ni⟩ (third person).

The past tense, by contrast, has no unmarked aspect; each past aspect (preterite or simple past, imperfect or progressive past, and habitual [past]) has its own set of person-number inflections.

Below is an inflection table, where V represents the thematic vowel of the verb (→thematic anaptyxis). The progressive and perfect aspects for the future and present are not shown, as they are perfectly regular, with the exception that the present progressive third person singular/collective (or second person singular formal) has another theme vowel inserted between the declensional suffix and the progressive suffix to prevent the two /t/s colliding, which is the only instance of double thematic anaptyxis.

Inflection table
first person second person third person
sg dl pl sg dl pl sg/col dl pl/sgv
informal formal informal formal informal formal
present -Vg -Vm -Vn -Vs -Vt -Vsi -Vti -Vsin -Vri -Vt -Vti -Vri
preterite -Vbo -Vbim -Vbin -Vtas -Vsat -Vtis -Vsti -Vtin -Vsri -Vsat -Vsti -Vsri
imperfect -Vbota -Vbita -Vbitan -Vtasta -Vtasat -Vtista -Vtasti -Vtinta -Vtasri -Vtasat -Vtasti -Vtasri
habitual -Vbotag -Vbitam -Vtabin -Vtastas -Vsata -Vtistas -Vstita -Vtintan -Vtasir -Vsata -Vstita -Vtasir
future -Vgi -Vmi -Vni -Vsti -Vti -Vstir -Vtir -Vstin -Vnir -Vti -Vtir -Vnir

Mood

The default mood is the indicative; other moods are expressed through modal particles:

Indicative Imperative Subjunctive Conditional Optative
Declarative lo mu da ki
Negative ne nel nem ned nek
Interrogative um mol mum maùd um ki
Negative-Interrogative num nemol nemum numda num ki
Relative sa slo smu sta sa ki
Negative-Relative nes neslo nesmu nesta nes ki
Subordinate ge glo gem ged ge ki
Negative-Subordinate neg neg lo negem neged ne ki

Adjectives and adverbs

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Semantics

The verb tug

The Daùnare verb ⟨tug⟩ nominally means "to bring", but is capable of expressing a whole host of things for which English uses different verbs. It is a so-called defective verb, meaning it has no antipassive.

Intransitive

When used intransitively in primary voice, it can be used with non-sentient/non-volitional arguments to mean "there is":

S V
Harnu tugut.
har-nu tug-u-t
way-abst.sg.abs bring-∅-prs.3sg
A way is brought.
‘There is a way.’

The same meaning ("there is") can be expressed with the middle voice for sentient/volitional arguments:

S V
Distan tegut.
dis-t-an teg-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.abs mid\bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings (himself).
‘There is a man.’

Of course, this also works in conjunction with other tenses and aspects (for, e.g., "There used to be a man", "There will have been a way") – with the exception of the progressive aspect (which exists in the present and future tense).

(Mono)transitive

In (mono)transitive usage in the primary voice, the verb usually does translate as "bring":

A P V
Distas kunen tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog.
‘A man brings a dog.’

A peculiarity of this verb is that it is possible to use the middle voice form of the verb transitively, i.e. with an ergative argument (which middle voice verbs usually do not take) functioning as recipient:

A P V
Distas kunen tegut.
dis-t-as kun-en teg-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs mid\bring-∅-prs.3sg
(To) a man a dog brings (itself).
‘A man gets a dog.’

Ditransitive

In ditransitive usage the verb can either be translated as "give" or "take" depending on whether the indirect object is dative or ablative:

A P I(DAT) V
Distas kunen disnimi tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en dis=n=i-mi tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs person=def=∅-fem.sg.dat bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog to the woman.
‘A man gives the woman a dog.’
A P I(ABL) V
Distas kunen plastel tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en plas-t-el tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs child-∅-conc.sg.abl bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog from a child.
‘A man takes a child's dog.’ / ‘A man takes a dog from a child.’

Tritransitive

Both indirect objects can be present to express the idea of giving A to B having taken it from C:

A P I(DAT) I(ABL) V
Distas kunen disnimi plastel tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en dis=n=i-mi plas-t-el tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs person=def=∅-fem.sg.dat child-∅-conc.sg.abl bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog to the woman from a child.
‘A man gives the woman a child's dog.’ / ‘A man gives the woman a dog taken from a child.’

Applicative

When used as a di- or tritransitive, the verb can be modified using the applicative prefix ⟨do-⟩ which promotes the dative to patient (and the secondary indirect object to primary). Relatively unusually, ⟨tug⟩ does not function as an intransitive verb with the applicative. Also, unlike some verbs, the applicative prefix cannot be combined with the middle voice stem to produce a medioapplicative.

A P V
Distas disnini tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni do-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs appl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "bebrings" the woman.
‘A man gives [something] to the woman.’
A P I(DAT) V
Distas disnini plastem tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni plas-t-em do-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs child-∅-conc.sg.dat appl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "bebrings" the woman through the child.
‘A man gives [something] to the woman [taken] from the child.’

Diapplicative

As is the case with other tritransitive verbs, the diapplicative prefix ⟨ro-⟩ can be used to promote the secondary indirect object to patient instead. Much like with the applicative, the diapplicative does not function intransitively (unlike in other verbs). Also, again like the applicative, the diapplicative prefix cannot be combined with the middle stem to produce a mediodiapplicative.

A P V
Distas disnini tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni ro-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs diappl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "disbrings" the woman.
‘A man takes [something] from the woman.’
A P I(DAT) V
Distas disnini plastem tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni plas-t-em ro-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs child-∅-conc.sg.dat diappl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "disbrings" the woman through the child.
‘A man takes [something] from the woman [and gives it] to the child.’

Example texts

Other resources