Proto-Tungric
Proto-Tungric is the hypothetical ancestor of the Tungric languages.
| Proto-Tungric | |
|---|---|
| *þauþigą | |
| Pronunciation | [ˈθɑuθiɣɑ̃] |
| Created by | Shariifka |
Indo-European
| |
Early form | |
Introduction
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.
The Italic base of Proto-Tungric had the following features:
- Lacked merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
- Stress rules similar to Classical Latin, however:
- Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable is super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel/diphthong followed by a coda consonant or a long diphthong.
- Vowel contraction had not yet taken place, affecting the stress of some words.
- Some words had analogical or sporadic stress shifts.
- Lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
a-stems
Masculine or neuter.
| *akraz m. "field" | *juką n. "yoke" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *akraz | *akrōz, -ōs | *juką | *jukō |
| Vocative | *akr | |||
| Accusative | *akrą | *akranz | ||
| Genitive | *akrī, -as | *akrǭ | *jukī, -as | *jukǭ |
| Dative | *akrōi | *akraiz | *jukōi | *jukaiz |
| Instrumental | *akrô | *jukô | ||
ō-stems
Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
| *þaudō f. "people" | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *þaudō | *þaudōz |
| Vocative | ||
| Accusative | *þaudǭ | *þaudōnz |
| Genitive | *þaudōz | *þaudōsą |
| Dative | *þaudōi | *þaudōbiz, *þaudōiz |
| Instrumental | *þaudô | |
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns toom the ending *-ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ō-stem endings preceded by *-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).
i-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *minþiz f. "mind" | *mari n. "sea" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *minþiz | *minþēz | *mari | *marjō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *minþį | *minþinz | ||
| Genitive | *minþīz | *minþijǭ | *marīz | *marjǭ |
| Dative | *minþī | *minþibiz | *marī | *maribiz |
| Instrumental | *minþî | *marî | ||
Note: The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to Siever's law.
u-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *farþuz m. "port" | *harnu n. "horn" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *farþuz | *farþawiz | *harnu | *harnuwō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *farþų | *farþunz | ||
| Genitive | *farþauz | *farþuwǭ | *harnauz | *harnuwǭ |
| Dative | *farþawī | *farþubiz | *harnawī | *harnubiz |
| Instrumental | *farþû | *harnû | ||
an-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *gemǭ m. "man" | *namǭ n. "name" | *ankwǭ n. "fat, grease" | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *gemǭ | *gemaniz | *namǭ | *namnō | *ankwǭ | *anwanō |
| Vocative | ||||||
| Accusative | *gemanį | *gemaninz | ||||
| Genitive | *gemaniz | *gemanǭ | *namniz | *namnǭ | *ankwaniz | *ankwanǭ |
| Dative | *gemanī | *gemambiz | *namnī | *namnibiz | *ankwanī | *ankwambiz |
| Instrumental | *gemani | *namni | *ankwani | |||
Note:
- As shown in the case of *namǭ, the expected *-an- in endings was reduced to *-n- in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *-in-.
- Some an-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending).
- an-stems whose nominative singular ended in *-ijǭ or -jǭ had *-īn- and *-in- respectively instead of expected **-ijan- or **-jan-.
ōn-stems
Masculine or feminine.
| *ahtijǭ f. "action" | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ahtijǭ | *ahtijōniz |
| Vocative | ||
| Accusative | *ahtijōnį | *ahtijōninz |
| Genitive | *ahtijōniz | *ahtijōnǭ |
| Dative | *ahtijōnī | *ahtijōmbiz |
| Instrumental | *ahtijōni | |
r-stems
Masculine or feminine.
| *mōþēr f. "mother" | *hanþōr m. "singer" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *mōþēr | *mōþriz | *hanþōr | *hanþriz |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *mōþrį | *mōþrinz | *hanþrį | *hanþrinz |
| Genitive | *mōþriz | *mōþrǭ | *hanþriz | *hanþrǭ |
| Dative | *mōþrī | *mōþribiz | *hanþrī | *hanþribiz |
| Instrumental | *mōþri | *hanþri | ||
Note: The nominative singular ended in either *-ēr or *-ōr. Otherwise, the vowel *-ē- or *-ō- was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *-e- or *-a- respectively.
z-stems
Any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *amōz m. "love" | *þimfaz n. "time" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *amōz | *amaziz | *þimfaz | *þimfizō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *amazį | *amazinz | ||
| Genitive | *amaziz | *amazǭ | *þimfiziz | *þimfizǭ |
| Dative | *amazī | *amazibiz | *þimfizī | *þimbizibiz |
| Instrumental | *amazi | *þimfizi | ||
Consonant stems
| *feþs m. "foot" | *hafud n. "head" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *feþs | *fiþiz | *hafud | *hafudō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *fiþį | *fiþinz | ||
| Genitive | *fiþiz | *feþǭ | *hafudiz | *hafudǭ |
| Dative | *fiþī | *fiþibiz | *hafudī | *hafudibiz |
| Instrumental | *fiþi | *hafudi | ||
Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *-s (which often led to minor stem changes), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
Adjectives
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin enim) that was reanalyzed as an n-stem ending.
a/ō-stem adjectives
| *twenaz "good" | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Strong | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenaz | *twenai | *twenō | *twenōi | *tweną, -at | *twenō |
| Accusative | *twenan | *twenanz | *twenǭ | *twenōnz | ||
| Genitive | *twenas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenōz, *twenazjōz | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenas, *twenazjas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą |
| Dative | *twenammai | *twenabiz | *twenōz | *twenōbiz | *twenammai | *twenabiz |
| Instrumental | *twenô | *twenô | *twenô | |||
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenǭ | *twenaniz | *twenǭ | *twenōniz | *twenǭ | *twenanō |
| Accusative | *twenanį | *twenaninz | *twenōnį | *twenōniz | ||
| Genitive | *twenaniz | *twenanǭ | *twenōniz | *twenōnǭ | *twenaniz | *twenanǭ |
| Dative | *twenanī | *twenambiz | *twenōnī | *twenōmbiz | *twenanī | *twenambiz |
| Instrumental | *twenani | *twenōni | *twenani | |||
ja/jō-stem adjectives
These were a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a *-j- or *-ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **-ija- became *-ī- and **-ja- became *-i-.
i-stem adjectives
These were declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-iz and *-į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.
The weak forms were identical to those of ja/jō-stems.
Consonant-stem adjectives
These were declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-s and *— respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.
The weak forms were identical to those of a/ō-stems.
Pronouns
First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns
| First person | Second person | Reflexive | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Nominative | *ekō, *ikō | *nōs, *nōz | *þū | *wōs, *wōz | — |
| Accusative | *mē | *þē | *sē | ||
| Genitive | *mīz | *nasterą | *þīz | *wasterą | *sīz |
| Dative | *migī | *nōbiz | *þibī | *wōbiz | *sibī |
| Instrumental | *met, *mit | *þet, *þit | *set, *sit | ||
| Possessive adj. | *mijaz | *nasteraz | *þawaz | *wasteraz | *sawaz |
Notes:
- When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
- Possessive adjectives were always strong.
3rd person pronoun
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *iz | *ijai | *ijō | *ijōi | *it | *ijō |
| Accusative | *in | *ijanz | *ijǭ | *ijōnz | ||
| Genitive | *izjas | *izjōsą | *izjōz | *izjōsą | *izjas | *izjōsą |
| Dative | *immai | *izjaiz, izjabiz | *izjōz | *izjōiz, *izjōbiz | *immai | *izjaiz, izjabiz |
| Instrumental | *izjô | *izjô | *izjô | |||
Reflexive/Intensive pronoun
| Strong | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsaz | *safsai | *safsō | *safsōi | *safsą, *safsat | *safsō |
| Accusative | *safsan | *safsanz | *safsǭ | *safsōnz | ||
| Genitive | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsōz, *safsazjōz | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą |
| Dative | *safsammai | *safsabiz | *safsōz | *safsōbiz | *safsammai | *safsabiz |
| Instrumental | *safsô | *safsô | *safsô | |||
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsǭ | *safsaniz | *safsǭ | *safsōniz | *safsǭ | *safsanō |
| Accusative | *safsanį | *safsaninz | *safsōnį | *safsōniz | ||
| Genitive | *safsaniz | *safsanǭ | *safsōniz | *safsōnǭ | *safsaniz | *safsanǭ |
| Dative | *safsanī | *safsambiz | *safsōnī | *safsōmbiz | *safsanī | *safsambiz |
| Instrumental | *safsani | *safsōni | *safsani | |||
Neutral demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *saz | *sai | *sō | *sōi | *sat | *sō |
| Accusative | *san | *sanz | *sǭ | *sōnz | ||
| Genitive | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sōz, *sazjōz | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą |
| Dative | *sammai | *sabiz | *sōz | *sōbiz | *sammai | *sabiz |
| Instrumental | *sô | *sô | *sô | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *izaz | *izai | *izō | *izōi | *izat | *izō |
| Accusative | *izan | *izanz | *izǭ | *izōnz | ||
| Genitive | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izōz, *izazjōz | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą |
| Dative | *izammai | *izabiz | *izōz | *izōbiz | *izammai | *izabiz |
| Instrumental | *izô | *izô | *izô | |||
Near demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *istaz | *istai | *istō | *istōi | *istat | *istō |
| Accusative | *istan | *istanz | *istǭ | *istōnz | ||
| Genitive | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istōz, *istazjōz | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą |
| Dative | *istammai | *istabiz | *istōz | *istōbiz | *istammai | *istabiz |
| Instrumental | *istô | *istô | *istô | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *gehaz | *gehai | *gehō | *gehōi | *gehat | *gehō |
| Accusative | *gehan | *gehanz | *gehǭ | *gehōnz | ||
| Genitive | *gegas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gegōz, *gegazjōz | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gegas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą |
| Dative | *gegammai | *gegabiz | *gegōz | *gegōbiz | *gegammai | *gegabiz |
| Instrumental | *gegô | *gegô | *gegô | |||
Far demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *allaz | *allai | *allō | *allōi | *allat | *allō |
| Accusative | *allan | *allanz | *allǭ | *allōnz | ||
| Genitive | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allōz, *allazjōz | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą |
| Dative | *allammai | *allabiz | *allōz | *allōbiz | *allammai | *allabiz |
| Instrumental | *allô | *allô | *allô | |||
Interrogative pronoun
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *hwai | *hwēz | *hwōi | *hwēz | *hwat | *hwō |
| Accusative | *hwan | *hwanz | *hwǭ | *hwōnz | ||
| Genitive | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwōz, *hwazjōz | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą |
| Dative | *hwammai | *hwabiz | *hwōz | *hwōbiz | *hwammai | *hwabiz |
| Instrumental | *hwô, *hwî | *hwô, *hwî | *hwô, *hwî | |||
Numerals
| # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | Multiplier |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *ainaz | *frīsimaz | *semēlą | *simflaz, *singilaz |
| 2 | *twō | *alþeraz | *twis | *twiflaz |
| 3 | *þrēz | *þriþjǭ | *þris | *þriflaz |
| 4 | *hwettwōr | *hwetarþǭ | *hwetris | *hwetriflaz |
| 5 | *hwinhw | *hwinhtǭ | ||
| 6 | *sehs | *sehstǭ | ||
| 7 | *siftį | *siftimǭ | ||
| 8 | *ahtō | *ahtōwǭ | ||
| 9 | *nawį | *naunǭ | ||
| 10 | *tihį | *tihimǭ | ||
| 11 | *ainatigį | *ainatihimǭ | ||
| 12 | *twatigį | *twatihimǭ | ||
| 13 | *þritigį | *þritihimǭ | ||
| 14 | *hwettwōrtigį | *hwettwōrtihimǭ | ||
| 15 | *hwinhtigį | *hwinhtihimǭ | ||
| 16 | *sehstigį | *sehstihimǭ | ||
| 17 | *siftintigį | *siftintihimǭ | ||
| 18 | *ahtōtigį | *ahtōtihimǭ | ||
| 19 | *nawintigį | *nawintijimǭ | ||
| 20 | *wīginþī | *wīginsǭ | ||
| 30 | *þrīginþō | *þrīginsǭ | ||
| 40 | *hwatrōginþō | *hwatrōginsǭ | ||
| 50 | *hwinhwōginþō | *hwinhwōginsǭ | ||
| 60 | *sehsōginþō | *sehsōginsǭ | ||
| 70 | *seftumōginþō | *seftumōginsǭ | ||
| 80 | *ahtōginþō | *ahtōginsǭ | ||
| 90 | *naunōginþō | *naunōginsǭ | ||
| 100 | *hinþą | *hinsǭ | ||
| 1000 | *smīgislī | *smīgislidǭ |
Notes:
- *ainaz "one" was declined as an a/ō-stem adjective.
- *twō "two" was declined as below:
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *twō, *twai | *twōi | *twō |
| Accusative | *twanz | *twōnz | *twō |
| Genitive | *twōsą | ||
| Dative | *twōbaz | ||
| Instrumental | *twô | ||
- *þrēz "three" was declined similarly to a plural i-stem noun.
- Numbers from 4-20 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
- *hinþą "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
- *smīgillī "thousand" was declined as an ī/jō-stem feminine noun.
- Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending -ǭ) except for 1st and 2nd.
Verbs
Strong verbs
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -ai | -istai | -id | -amaz | -istiz | -ēri |
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel -i-.
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem is formed:
- Class 1: This class had a present stem vowel of -i-. It had two subclasses:
- a. The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to -ai- — e.g. *witēō "I see" > *waitai "I saw", *wissaz "seen"
- b. The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to -ī- — e.g. *winhō "I conquer" > *wīhai "I conquered", *wihtaz "conquered"
- Class 2: This class has a present stem vowel of -u- which changes to -au- in the past stem — e.g. *bukjō "I flee" > *baukai "I fled", *bukadaz "fled"
- Class 3: This class has a present stem vowel of -a-, -e-, or -i- that becomes -ē- in the past stem — e.g. *dahjō "I do" > *dēhai "I did", *dahtaz "done"
- Class 4: This class has a present stem vowel -a- that becomes -ō- in the past stem — e.g. *skabō "I scratch" > *skōbai "I scratched", *skabadaz "scratched"
- Class 5: The past stem has the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. *fipō "I drink" > *fipai "I drank", *fipadaz "drunk"
- Class 6: The past stem is derived from the present stem by adding -s- — e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged", *þrahtaz "dragged"
- Class 7: The past stem is formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e-. In some verbs, there may also be a vowel change (usually -e/i- to -a-) — e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *hehanai "I sang"
- Irregular: The past stem is formed in another way besides those above — e.g. *stêō "I stand" > *steþai "I stood"
Some strong verbs have irregular presents. This affects the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There are three types of irregularities, and they can co-occur:
- A j-suffix. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and may be light or heavy. This affects the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it does in nouns and adjectives.
- An nasal infix. This does not affect the verb's endings, but affects the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
- A vowel suffix (usually -ō- or -ē-). Such verbs are called ō-presents or ē-presents respectively. They conjugate similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There is also the exceptional verb *stêsi which has the suffix -ê-.
The past participle of strong verbs is formed with the suffix -þaz which, depending on the verb, may become -taz, -daz, or -saz. There may or may not be a connector vowel. If there is one, it is usually -a- (or -i- in the case of j-presents.
Example (class 3): *akizi "to do, act"
| Infinitive | *akizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *akinþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *ahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *akjō | *akjōr | *akjǭ | *akjār | *ēkai | *ēkizǭ | |
| 2S | *akiz | *akizar | *akjāz | *akjāzar | *ēkistai | *ēkizēz | *ak |
| 3S | *akid | *akidar | *akjād | *akjādar | *ēkid | *ēkizēd | *akjô |
| 1P | *akjamaz | *akiminai | *akjāmaz | *akjāminai | *ēkamaz | *ēkizēmaz | |
| 2P | *akidiz | *akjādiz | *ēkistiz | *ēkizēþiz | *akid | ||
| 3P | *akjand | *akjānd | *akjēri | *akizēnd | *akjanþô | ||
Example (class 3, light j-present): *dahizi "to do, make"
| Infinitive | *dahizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *daginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *dahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *dahjō | *dahjōr | *dahjǭ | *dahjār | *dēhai | *dēhizǭ | |
| 2S | *dahiz | *dahizar | *dahjāz | *dagjāzar | *dēgistai | *dēhizēz | *dah |
| 3S | *dahid | *dahidar | *dahjād | *dagjādar | *dēhid | *dēhizēd | *dahjô |
| 1P | *dahjamaz | *dagiminai | *dagjāmaz | *dagjāminai | *dēhamaz | *dēgizēmaz | |
| 2P | *dahidiz | *dagjādiz | *dēgistiz | *dēgizēþiz | *dahid | ||
| 3P | *dahjand | *dahjānd | *dagjēri | *dagizēnd | *dagjanþô | ||
Example: *þragizi (class 6) "to sing"
| Infinitive | *þragizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *þraginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *þrahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *þragō | *þragōr | *þragǭ | *þragār | *þrahsai | *þrahsizǭ | |
| 2S | *þragiz | *þragizar | *þragāz | *þragāzar | *þrahsistai | *þrahsizēz | *þrag |
| 3S | *þragid | *þragidar | *þragād | *þragādar | *þrahsid | *þrahsizēd | *þragô |
| 1P | *þragamaz | *þragiminai | *þragāmaz | *þragāminai | *þrahsamaz | *þrahsizēmaz | |
| 2P | *þragidiz | *þragādiz | *þrahsistiz | *þrahsizēþiz | *þragid | ||
| 3P | *þragand | *þragānd | *þrahsēri | *þrahsizēnd | *þraganþô | ||
Example: *hanizi (class 7) "to sing"
| Infinitive | *hanizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *haninþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *hanþaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *hanō | *hanōr | *hanǭ | *hanār | *hehanai | *heganizǭ | |
| 2S | *haniz | *hanizar | *hanāz | *hanāzar | *heganistai | *heganizēz | *han |
| 3S | *hanid | *hanidar | *hanād | *hanādar | *hehanid | *heganizēd | *hanô |
| 1P | *hanamaz | *haniminai | *hanāmaz | *hanāminai | *heganamaz | *heganizēmaz | |
| 2P | *hanidiz | *hanādiz | *heganistiz | *heganizēþiz | *hanid | ||
| 3P | *hanand | *hanānd | *heganēri | *heganizēnd | *hananþô | ||
Example (class 7, heavy j-present): *bargīzi "to stuff"
| Infinitive | *bargīzi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *bargīnþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *barhtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *barhijō | *barhijōr | *barhijǭ | *barhijār | *bebarhai | *bebargīsǭ | |
| 2S | *barhīz | *bargīzar | *barhijāz | *bargijāzar | *bebargīstai | *bebargīsēz | *barh |
| 3S | *barhīd | *bargīdar | *barhijād | *bargijādar | *bebarhīd | *bebargīsēd | *barhijô |
| 1P | *bargijamaz | *bargīminai | *bargijāmaz | *bargijāminai | *bebarhamaz | *bebargīzēmaz | |
| 2P | *bargīþiz | *bargijādiz | *bebargīstiz | *bebargīzēþiz | *bargīþ | ||
| 3P | *barhijand | *barhijānd | *bargijēri | *bargīzēnd | *bargijanþô | ||
Example: *stêsi (irregular, present suffix -ê-) "to stand"
| Infinitive | *stêsi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *stênþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *staþaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *stêō | *stêōr | *stêǭ | *stêār | *steþai | *stiþizǭ | |
| 2S | *stêz | *stêsar | *stêāz | *stêāsar | *stidistai | *stiþizēz | *stê |
| 3S | *stêd | *stêþar | *stêād | *stêāþar | *stiþid | *stiþizēd | *stêô |
| 1P | *stêmaz | *stêminai | *stêāmaz | *stêāminai | *steþamaz | *stidizēmaz | |
| 2P | *stêþiz | *stêāþiz | *stidistiz | *stidizēþiz | *stêd | ||
| 3P | *stênd | *stêānd | *stedēri | *stidizēnd | *stênþô | ||
Weak verbs
Weak verbs do not change their stem, and they take the following endings in the past indicative: Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -bǭ | -bōz | -bōd | -bōmaz | -bōþiz | -bōnd |
The -b- is usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depends on the weak verb class.
The past subjunctive endings are also added to the present stem. A connector vowel is also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
Class 1
Class 1 weak verbs conjugate similarly to j-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
The past indicative has a connector vowel -(i)ja-, while the past subjunctive and past participle have a connector vowel -i/ī-. In both cases, the suffixes follow Siever's law.
Class 2
Class 2 weak verbs have the following characteristics:
- The present stem ends in -ō-, which absorbs any following short vowels and contracts with 1S -ō- to -ô-. In the present subjunctive, expected *-ōǭ contracts to -ǫ̂, while expected *-ōā- becomes -ōē-.
- The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle is -ō-, as in the present stem.
Class 3
There are two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
The first subclass is conjugated with the suffixed vowel -ē-, which absorbs following short vowels (similar to the -ō- of class 2) but does not contract with long vowels. The past participle has the connector vowel -a-.
The second subclass is conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive are conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel -ē- and with a palatal suffix). The past participle has the connector vowel -i-.
Class 4
Class 4 weak verbs do not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation follows that of non-j-stem strong verbs.
The past indicative has a connector vowel -a-, and the past subjunctive has a connector vowel -i-. The past participle has no connector vowel.
Preterite-present verbs
Preterite-present verbs are verbs whose present tenses conjugate as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs have weak pasts.
For example:
- *minizi "to remember", *memanai "I remember", *menabǭ "I remembered", *minþaz "remembered"
- *ōtizi "to hate", *ōtai "I hate", *ōtabǭ "I hated", *ōssaz "hated"
- *(ga)knōsi "to know, be familiar (with)", *(ga)knōai "I know, am familiar (with)", *(ga)knōbǭ "I knew, was familiar (with)", *(ga)knōþaz "known"
- *(ga)swidizi "to be used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedai "I am used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedabǭ "I was used/accustomed to", *(ga)swēssaz "accustomed"
- *imizi "to have, own", *ēmai "I have, own", *emabǭ "I had, owned", *imþaz "had, owned"
- *sinizi "to be allowed", *sīsai "I am allowed", *sinabǭ "I was allowed", *siþaz "allowed"
- *hrinizi "to be determined", *hrīsai "I am determined", *hrinabǭ "I was determined", *hriþaz "determined"
- *(ga)flēsi "to suffice, be enough", *(ga)flēai "I suffice, am enough", *(ga)flēþaz "sufficed, enoigh"
- *þilizi "to owe, have to", *þeþalai "I owe, have to", *þelabǭ "I owe, had to", *þelþaz "owed, had to"
- *afizi "to be necessary/suitable", *ēfai "I am necessary/suitable", *afabǭ "I was necessary/suitable", *aftaz "necessary/suitable"
The verb "to be"
The verb "to be" has two stems *(i)s- and *bu/bū-. They can be treated as two separate verbs that share past indicative and imperative forms.
| Infinitive | *issi | *būizi | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *sinþs | *būinþs | |||||||
| Past participle | — | *būadaz | |||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
| *issi | *būizi 1 | *būizi 2 | *issi | *būizi | *būizi | *issi | *būizi | ||
| 1S | *izą | *būō | *buzą | *sijǭ | *buzǭ | *bebūai | *issǭ | *bebūzǭ | |
| 2S | *iz | *būiz | *buz | *sijēz | *buzāz | *bebūistai | *issēz | *bebūzēz | *bū |
| 3S | *ist | *būid | *bust | *sijēd | *buzād | *bebūid | *issēd | *bebūzēd | |
| 1P | *samaz | *būamaz | *buzamaz | *sijēmaz | *buzāmaz | *bebūamaz | *issēmaz | *bebūzēmaz | |
| 2P | *istiz | *būidiz | *bustiz | *sijēþiz | *buzāþiz | *bebūistiz | *issēþiz | *bebūzēþiz | *būid |
| 3P | *sind | *būind | *buzind | *sijēnd | *buzānd | *bebūēri | *issēnd | *bebūzēnd | |