Kola

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Kola (Native: ጅቆለ /d͡ʒɨkʼolə/, Latin script: Jïqolä) is a Bantu language spoken by the Kola people (ወቆለ wäqolä).

Introduction

Phonology

Orthography

Ge'ez abugida

IPA ə u i a e ɨ/- o ʷə ʷi ʷa ʷe ʷɨ
h  
l    
ħ    
m    
s    
r    
s    
ʃ    
ʁ
b    
v    
   
t͡ʃʰ    
ħ
n    
ɲ    
ʔ አ (ኧ)  
χ
w  
ʕ  
z    
ʒ    
j  
d    
d͡ʒ    
ɡ
ŋ
   
t͡ʃʼ    
   
t͡sʼ    
t͡sʼ  
f    
   
IPA ə u i a e ɨ/- o ʷə ʷi ʷa ʷe ʷɨ/-

Notes:

1 The base forms for non-labialized guttural (uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal) consonants are not normally used, since they do not occur with the vowel /ə/ except in ideophones. If they do appear, they are generally used interchangeably with the /a/ forms (except for the uvulars). In ideophones, /(ʔ)ə/ is written as ኧ; the rest simply use their base forms (despite the ambiguity for /h/, /ħ/, and /ʕ/).

2 Gemination is not normally indicated, and the vowel /ɨ/ is not distinguished from a null vowel. If necessary (e.g. in texts meant for learners/foreigners), gemination can be indicated with two dots above the letter, and /ɨ/ with an apostrophe when not obvious from context.

Latin alphabet

Clusters that can be confused with digraphs are separated with an apostrophe - e.g. s'h /sh/ vs sh /ʃ/.

Letter IPA
A a a
Ä ä ə
B b b
C c t͡ʃʰ
Ch ch t͡ʃ’
D d d
E e e
F f f
G g ɡ
Gh gh ʁ
H h h
Hh hh ħ
I i i
Ï ï ɨ
J j d͡ʒ
K k
Kh kh χ
L l l
M m m
N n n
Letter IPA
Ny ny ɲ
Ng ng ŋ
O o o
P p
Ph ph p’
Q q k’
Qh qh ʕ
R r r
S s s
Sh sh ʃ
T t
Th th t’
U u u
V v v
W w w
X x t͡s’
Y y y
Z z z
(Zh zh) ʒ
ʔ

Consonants

Consonant phonemes
Labial Coronal Palatal/
Postalveolar
Velar/Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
plain labialized
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ ŋʷ
Stop ejective kʷʼ
aspirated kʷʰ ʔ
voiced b d ɡ ɡʷ
Affricate ejective t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ
aspirated t͡ʃʰ
voiced d͡ʒ
Fricative voiceless f s ʃ χ χʷ ħ h
voiced v z (ʒ)1 ʁ ʁʷ ʕ
Approximant l j w
Tap/Trill r

Notes:

1 The distinction between /d͡ʒ/ and /ʒ/ has been lost in the standard language (where they occur in free variation), but is still present in some dialects.

2 "Guttural" refers to everything post-velar - i.e. uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal.

3 All consonants have labialized allophones before the rounded vowels /o/ and /u/. The distinction between plain and labialized gutturals is neutralized in this position. Most consonants can also occur labialized before other vowels, but they behave more as sequences of consonant + /w/ (except for -wa, which behaves as a vowel).

Vowels

Vowel phonemes1
  Front Central2 Back
High i ɨ u
Mid e ə o
Low a

Notes:

1 The vowels /ɨ, ə/ are considered "weak", and the rest are considered "strong". In some circumstances, weak vowels may allophonically be pronounced strong or vice versa. In these cases, the underlying form is taken into consideration in any relevant processes (prosody, sandhi, etc). Note that diphthongs and triphthongs are treated as strong if they are within a single morpheme.

2 The central vowels /ɨ, ə, a/ are actually pronounced closer to [ɪ̈, ɜ ~ ɐ, ä] respectively. They have front allophones [ɪ, ɛ ~ æ, a] after palatal/postalveolar consonants and rounded allophones [ʊ̈, ɞ ~ ɞ̞, ɒ̈] after labialized consonants (including /w/). The front and rounded allophones of the weak vowels are interchangeable with the corresponding front/rounded strong vowels; in this article, the underlying forms are used.

3 The weak vowel /ə/ becomes /a/ after guttural consonants, and the two vowels alternate with each other when followed by a guttural consonant (especially if said guttural is followed by a central or null vowel).

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. When this would happen, they are separated with epenthetic consonants such as /j/, /w/, or /ʔ/.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

The following changes occur at morpheme boundaries:

  • ï + w, y > u, i / _C / w or y is geminated
  • ä + w, y > o, e / _C / w or y is geminated (this rule is optional)
  • ï > Ø / C_C whenever possible
  • ï > Ø / _V, V_
  • u > w / K_V (i.e. labializes gutturals)
  • u > Ø / C_V (otherwise)
  • i > Ø / C_V
  • ä/a + a, e, i, o, u > a, e, e, o, o
  • front/central vowel > Ø / e_
  • back/central vowel > Ø / o_
  • When e/i/o/u are not assimilated to a following vowel or preceding central vowel, y/w is added as an epenthetic consonant for front and back vowels respectively.

Allophony and variation

  • When the vowel "ä" occurs after non-labialized guttural (uvular, pharyngeal, or glottal) consonants, it becomes "a". This can also occur optionally before gutturals, especially if the guttural is followed by a central or null vowel.
  • All consonants are labialized before the vowels o and u. The distinction between plain and labial velars is lost in this circumstance.
  • Labiovelar consonants followed by ä or ï can be written and pronounced as their non-labialized counterparts followed by o or u respectively. The inverse is also true. Note that w has no non-labialized counterpart and therefore remains w regardless (but the vowel alternations still apply).
  • The vowels ä or ï can be replaced with e or i respectively after palatal consonants and vice versa.
  • Velars and gutturals are often palatalized before front vowels, but this is not always true even in native words.
  • Word-initial vowels are preceded with a glottal stop.

Consonant mutations

Spirantization

p’, pʰ > f

b, w > v

t’, tʰ, t͡s’ > s

d, l, r > z

t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ > ʃ

(d͡ʒ > ʒ)

k’, kʰ, g > χ, ħ, ʕ

ŋ > ʁ

Nasalization

p’, t’, t͡s’, t͡ʃ’, k(ʷ)’ > pʰ, tʰ, s, t͡ʃʰ, k(ʷ)ʰ

w, l, r, j, ŋ(ʷ) > b, d, d, d͡ʒ, g(ʷ)

χ(ʷ), ʁ, ʁʷ > ħ(ʷ), ʕ, w

Ø > ɲ / _V

Palatalization

ŋ, ʔ > j

k’, kʰ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ

χ, ħ, h > ʃ

g, ʁ, ʕ > d͡ʒ, (ʒ, ʒ)

Labialization

ŋ, k’, kʰ, g, χ, ħ, ʁ > ŋʷ, kʷ’, kʷʰ, gʷ, χʷ, ħʷ, ʁʷ

ʔ, ʕ > w

Historical phonology

Grand master plan

(Proto-Bantu reconstruction taken from Wikipedia.[1] To avoid confusion, Proto-Bantu *j is written ɟ)

ɟ > Ø / V_a, ɲ_a

ɟ > Ø / i_i, i_ɪ (maybe also ɪ_i, ɪ_ɪ) - for class 5/6 nouns, the *ɟ is also dropped from the plural by analogy

b, d, ɟ, g > _ / sporadic (mostly in common words)

p, b > p͡f, b͡v / _i, _u

t, d > t͡s, d͡z / _i, _u

c, ɟ > c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ / _i, _u

k, g > k͡x, g͡ɣ / _i, _u

ɪ, ʊ > i, u

i, e, u, o > j, j, w, w (transfers high tone to following vowel) / _V

V́, VV > V: (VV = doubled vowel)

ie, ei > e:

uo, ou > o:

ai, ae, au, ao > e:, e:, o:, o:

b, d, ɟ, g > β̞, l, j, ɰ / not preceded by nasal

p͡f, b͡v > f, v / not preceded by nasal

t͡s, d͡z > s, z / not preceded by nasal

c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ > ç, ʝ / not preceded by nasal

k͡x, g͡ɣ > x, ɣ / not preceded by nasal

[-voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate ] > [-prenasalized +aspirated] (i.e. mp, nt, etc > pʰ, tʰ, etc for all voiceless stops and affricates)

[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate ] > [+voiced] / in grammatical morphemes

[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate] > [+ejective] / otherwise

[+voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate] > [-prenasalized] / #_, V:_ (i.e. mb, nd, etc > b, d, etc)

[+voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate] > [-prenasalized +geminate] / V_

NN > N / #_, V:_

velar > palatal / before front vowel

c͡ç’, c͡çʰ, ɟ͡ʝ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ

c’, cʰ, ɟ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ

ç, ʝ > ʃ, ʒ

k͡xʰ, g͡ɣ > qʰ, ɢ

p͡fʰ, b͡v > f, v

ɰ > ŋ / all environments / in grammatical prefixes and some roots

qʰ, ɢ > χ, ʁ

Kw > Kʷ (where K = kʼ, kʰ, ɡ, ŋ, χ, ʁ, x, ɣ)

Kʷ > K / _VKʷ, _VP (where P = labial consonant)

χ(ʷ), ʁ > ħ(ʷ), ʕ

ʁʷ > w

x(ʷ), ɣ(ʷ) > χ(ʷ), ʁ(ʷ)

ʒ > d͡ʒ (not in all dialects)

β̞ > w

ɰ > w / before rounded vowel

ɰ > j / otherwise

a > ə

e, o > ə / _

a:, e:, o: > a, e, o

i, u > ɨ (u sometimes labializes velar consonants, especially in grammatical prefixes)

i:, u: > i, u

wɨ, jɨ > u, i / C_C

wə, jə > o, e / C_C

ɨ > Ø / _#, VC_C (starting from beginning of word) / disallowed by phonotactics

j > Ø / C_V (not always)

w > Ø / C_V (not always)

(due to the above two changes, many stems beginning in semivowels drop them and become vowel-initial)

l > r / sporadic

χ, ħ > h / sporadic

ə > a / after non-labialized guttural consonant

Morphology

Nouns

Noun classes

Kola preserves many of the Proto-Bantu noun classes.

Noun classes
Class Noun prefix Concord prefixes1 Pronoun Typical meaning(s)
pronominal extended subject object adjective
1 mï-; - yï- ye- ya- mï- mï- ïyye Humans, animate
2 wä- wä- wo- wa- wä- ïwwo Plural of class 1
3 mï- wï- wo- wu- mï- ïwwo Inanimate
4 mï- jï- jo- ji- mï- ïjjo Plural of class 3
5 zï-; - lï- lo- li- zï- ïllo Augmentatives, various
6 mä- yä- yo- ya- mä- ïyyo Plural of class 5, mass nouns
7 jï- shï- sho- shi- jï- ïjjo Tools/artefacts, diminutives, languages, various
8 vï- vï- vo- vi- vï- ïvvo Plural of class 7
9 N-; -2 yï- yo- yi- N- ïyyo Animals, inanimate
10 N-; - ĵï- ĵo- ĵi- N- ïĵĵo Plural of classes 9 & 11
11 lï- lï- lo- lu- lï- ïllo Abstract, manner/way/culture
12 gä- gä- go- ga- gä- ïggo Diminutives
13 dï- dï- do- du- dï- ïddo Plural of class 12
14 wï- wï- wo- wu- wï- ïwwo Abstract, countries/lands
15 g(w/ï)-3 g(w/ï)- go- gu- g(w/ï)- ïggo Infinitives
16 bä- bä- bo- ba- bä- ïbbo Location, "against", "to the detriment of"
17 g(w/ï)- g(w/ï)- go- gu- g(w/ï)- ïggo Approximate location, direction, "for", "to", "to the benefit of"

Notes:

1 Subject and object concords are used for the subject and object of a verb respectively, and adjective concords are used with adjectives. Most other words use pronominal concords. The "extended" concords have a use; it just hasn't been determined yet. Independent and possessive pronouns exist for each class based on the extended forms (see pronouns).

These concord prefixes are considered formal and old-fashioned, and are normally replaced with animacy-based concords. Words agreeing with animate nouns use classes 1/2, while those agreeing with inanimate nouns use classes 5/6, 9/10 (used by this article), or some combination (most commonly 9/6). When a modifier is used with a noun, the concord prefix can optionally be omitted.

With nouns, class 16 and 17 behave as prepositions. Their concord prefixes may be used with verbs; otherwise, the prefix appears at the beginning of the noun phrase.

2 N- = initial nasalization

3 (w/ï) = -w- added before vowels

4 Inanimate nouns (especially those whose plural form is identical to their singular) can form an alternative plural by adding the class 6 prefix mä- to either their singular or plural. Similarly, animate nouns (especially those not already in class 1) can add the class 2 prefix wä-.

e.g. class 3 ምጢ mïthi "tree" (stem: -thi) → class 4 ምጢ mïthi or class 6 መምጢ mämthi "trees"
class 5 ዚጨ zichä "eye" (stem: -ichä) → class 6 ሜጨ mechä or መሜጨ mämechä / መዚጨ mäzichä "eyes"
class 5 ዝት zïtt "giant; great person" (stem: -tt) → class 6 መት mätt or class 2 ወመት wämätt / ወዝት wäzïtt "giants; great people"

Younger speakers tend to add the prefixes to the noun's singular form, while older speakers add them to the plural forms or don't add them at all.

5 Diminutive and augmentative prefixes may be added before the prefix of the base noun or directly to the stem. Locative prefixes are always added to the beginning of the noun phrase before any other prefixes and/or modifiers.

e.g. gä- + zichä → ጌጨ gechä or ገዚጨ gäzichä "little eye"
bä- + zichä → በዚጨ bäzichä (NOT *ቤጨ bechä) "in (an) eye"
bä- + lä- "the" + inanimate concord + -ngolä "red" + zichä → በለጎለ ዚጨ bälägolä zichä "in the red eye"

Articles

The definite article is ለ (invariant), which attaches to the beginning of the noun phrase, immediately after any locative prefixes or other prepositions - e.g. ለዚጨ läzichä "the eye"; በለዚጨ bäläzichä "in the eye".

Kola does not have an indefinite article.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

In this table, only animate (i.e. class 1/2) third person pronouns are shown. Other noun classes have corresponding independent pronouns formed from the corresponding extended concord prefixes (see noun classes).

Possessive pronouns/adjectives are formed by attaching the relativizing particle to the independent pronouns. When a prefix is added, the initial ï- in a pronoun is lost.

Kola personal pronouns
Person Independent Concord prefixes
extended pronominal subject object
1S እሚ ïmmi ኜ- nye- ኝ- nyï-
2S እዌ ïwwe ዌ- we- ው- wï- ግ/ጕ- g(ï/w)-
3S እዬ ïyye ዬ- ye- ይ- yï- ያ- ya- ም- mï-
1P እሲ ïssi ሶ- so- ሲ- si
2P እኒ ïnni ኖ- no- ኒ- ni-
3P እዎ ïwwo ዎ- wo- ወ- wä- ዋ- wa-

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with the noun they modify, taking the appropriate adjective concord prefixes (see noun classes). However, except in very formal language, the full set of prefixes is not used and is replaced with animacy concords. Adjectives modifying animate nouns use class 1/2 prefixes (for the singular/plural repectively), and those modifying inanimate nouns use class 9/10 or 5/6 or 9/6 prefixes. In very informal language, the concord prefixes can be dropped entirely.

Adjectives precede the noun they modify. They can be used independently without a noun, in which case the concord prefix is obligatory and cannot be dropped.

Numbers

In this table, like the rest of this article, animacy concord is used (with 9/10 for inanimate). Class 7/8 forms are also given in order to further demonstrate the effects of sandhi, particularly in the forms for "two".

Ordinal numbers are formed with the relativizing particle a- and therefore are actually possessives. For example, amu "first" literally means "of one".

Kola numbers
Cardinal Ordinal
Counting Adjective no prefix singular plural animate
stem animate (1/2) inanimate (9/10) 7/8
1 መሲ mäsi ሙ mu ምሙ mïmu ሙ mu ሽሙ shïmu አሙ amu የሙ yämu ዋሙ wamu
2 ውሊ wïli ውሊ wïli ዎሊ/ወውሊ woli/wäwli ብሊ bïli ቩሊ vuli አውሊ awli ዮሊ/የውሊ yoli/yäwli ዋውሊ wawli
3 ጣጥ thath ጣጥ thath ወጣጥ wäthath ታጥ tath ቭጣጥ vïthath አጣጥ athath የጣጥ yäthath ዋጣጥ wathath
4 ኔ ne ኔ ne ወኔ wäne ኔ ne ቭኔ vïne አኔ ane የኔ yäne ዋኔ wane
5 ጫን chan ጫን chan ወጫን wächan ቻን can ቭጫን vïchan አጫን achan የጫን yächan ዋጫን wachan
6 ቃጘ qangä ቃጘ qangä ወቃጘ wäqangä ካጘ kangä ቭቃጘ vïqangä አቃጘ aqangä የቃጘ yäqangä ዋቃጘ waqangä
7 ጦሎ tholo ጦሎ tholo ወጦሎ wätholo ቶሎ tolo ቭጦሎ vïtholo አጦሎ atholo የጦሎ yätholo ዋጦሎ watholo
8 ናኔ nane ናኔ nane ወናኔ wänane ናኔ nane ቭናኔ vïnane አናኔ anane የናኔ yänane ዋናኔ wanane
9 ሰጛን sängan ሰጛን sängan ወሰጛን wäsängan ሰጛን sängan ቭሰጛን vïsängan አሰጛን asängan የሰጛን yäsängan ዋሰጛን wasängan
10 ቁም qum ቁም qum ወቁም wäqum ኩም kum ቭቁም vïqum አቁም aqum የቁም yäqum ዋቁም waqum

Verbs

Non-finite forms

Infinitive is a class 15 noun - e.g. ጔደ gweddä "to walk" (stem: -eddä).

Agent nouns are class 1/2 - e.g. ሜዝ mezz "person who walks; companion" (pl: ዌዝ wezz).

TAM

Negation is accomplished with the circumfix kä-m in main clauses and the prefix kä- in subordinate clauses.

Yes/No questions are formed with the suffix -m on the verb.

Voice

Passive is formed with the suffix -wa - e.g. *ጔዷ gweddwa "to be walked" (doesn't make sense, but you get the idea).

Syntax

Constituent order

SOV

Noun phrase

Modifiers precede noun

Verb phrase

Verb-final

Adpositional phrase

Prepositions, postpositions, circumpositions.

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Follow the same word order as main clauses (SOV, etc). Subordinating particles directly precede the verb, unless they are used fir other functions (such as possession).

Relative clauses

Relativizing particle: a- (attaches to verb)

The relativizing particle may take pronominal concord prefixes to agree with noun being modified, but this is optional. It combines as -ä-.

The relativizing particle is also used with nouns for possession, in which case it attaches to the possessor noun.

Like most modifiers, relative clauses and possessors precede the noun they modify.

Example texts

Other resources