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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image =  
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagesize = 100px
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", pronounced [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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===Phonemes===
===Phonemes===


The underlying sounds of Ash are few enough that a simple listing is preferable to a traditional table:
Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
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===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters:
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters as well as the apostrophe to mark syllabic consonants:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| n
| n
| ŋ
| ŋ
| ʼ
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ha.ku//}}
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.ka//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwah.taˌku/}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.ka/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ]}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.ʁɐ]}}
| → ''oahdago'' "during the day"
| → ''oahdaga'' "during the day"
|}
|}


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| [ʍ.ʍ]
| [ʍ.ʍ]
|-
|-
! {{IPA|/t͡s-/}}
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| [s̠.s̠]
| [s̠.s̠]
|-
|-
! {{IPA|/t͡ɬ-/}}
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
|colspan="2"| <center>[ɬ.ɬ]</center>
|colspan="2"| <center>[ɬ.ɬ]</center>
|}
|}
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! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ħ.P]
| [ħ.P]
| [ʔ.P͡F]
| [ħ.P͡F]
| /ʔ.ᴰN/
| /ʔ.ᴰN/
|}
|}
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==Morphology==
==Morphology==


Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and adverbials. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.
Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.


=== Verbs ===
=== Verbs ===


The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template looks as follows:
The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| Trans./Poss.
| TV
| Preverb
| Preverbs
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Class.
| Class.
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| Der.
| Der.
| State
| State
| Mood/Nom.
| Mood
| Conj.
| Inv.
| Adv.
| Converb.
| Enclitics
|}
|}


The nominalisation slot creates a deverbal nominal and the adverbialisation slot creates an adverbial and so these two serve to change the class of the word; the possession slot is only used on deverbal nominals and not on regular verbs.
TV refers to transitive-volitional marking, as the two categories are entwined.


====Stems====
====Stems====
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|}
|}


All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The active or stative stems are the ones that are generally prone to being somewhat unpredictable, whereas the other three are formed productively. The transitional is often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the perfective or habitual active or stative.
All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The transitional is often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.


====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====
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|}
|}


Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ohwa'' "cook", related to ''oo'' "consume".
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ʼmmohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in adverbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession (obligatory on inalienably possessed nominal) or be incorporated into a verb (in which case inalienably possessed nominal do lose their possessive marker).
Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in converbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession (obligatory on inalienably possessed nominal) or be incorporated into a verb (in which case inalienably possessed nominal do lose their possessive marker).


The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:
The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ammõõ''
| ''ʼmmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
|}
|}


While there are few grammatical processes that modify nouns, derivational ones do exist. For example collective nouns can be formed through a reduplication process, such as ''ahba'' "the town of Appa" (in reference to the many nearby sources of water) from ''ao'' "sea" (but originally water of any kind; replaced in modern Ash by ''sãã'').
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below).


===Adverbials===
===Converbs===


Adverbials are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions more than traditional adverbs, but serves that role as well.
Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.


Some prominent adverbialising suffixes:
Some prominent converbialising suffixes:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-go''
| ''-ga''
| ''oadnago'' "in the morning"
| ''oadnaga'' "in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-ba''
| ''-ba''
| ''eaba'' "in order to see"
| ''eeba'' "in order to see"
|}
|}


===Deixis===
===Deixis===


The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); adverbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the adverbial in question.
The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); converbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the converb in question.


The deictic stems are as follows:
The deictic stems are as follows:
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|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Neutral deixis sometimes surfaces epenthetically as ''a-'' due to phonotactic constraints, but is not underlyingly explicitly marked.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Despite their conventional romanisation ''ee'' and ''oo'' are not pronounced *[-i̯eː-] and *[-u̯oː-]. They are respectively irregularly reduced forms of *''eyye'' and *''owwo'' that tend to blend into the next word, often as [-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-] and [-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-], but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as [-ɪw-] and [-ʊj-]. This also goes for the proximal-proximal reflexive prefix ''ee-'' (reduced from *''eye-'') and the distal-distal counterpart ''oo-'' (reduced from *''owo-''). However, in converbs such as the locative ''eeda'' "here" the underlying form is different and so the pronunciation is the expected [-i̯eː.ðɐ] (compare this to ''ee go'' [-e̞ːɪ̯‿ɣʊ]~[-e̞ːɪ̯‿ɣo̞], where the clitic is attached to the free-floating nominal and not the root). They can be thought of as *''ey'' and *''ow'' but due to their exceptionality and for consistency with the use of ''e'' and ''o'' for semivowels elsewhere (as in ''ae'' and ''ao'') it has been decided that they be spelled the way they are.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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====Simple intransitives====
====Simple intransitives====


In simple statements proximal deixis combined with a conjunct verb denotes a first person while combined with a disjunct verb it denotes a second person whereas in questions this is flipped. Distal deixis or an explicit nominal denotes a third person in both cases. Note that there is no number distinction and so for example first person can imply both "I" and "we" but for the sake of space only one translation is given for each example.
In simple statements proximal deixis combined with a conjunct verb denotes a first person, while combined with a disjunct verb it denotes a second person, whereas in questions this is flipped. Distal deixis or an explicit nominal denotes a third person in both cases. Note that there is no number distinction and so for example first person can imply both "I" and "we" but for the sake of space only one translation is given for each example.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| -
| -
| ''(ee) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(ee go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(oo) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(oo go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(ee) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(ee go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(oo) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
| ''(oo go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ee go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ee) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(ee go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oo) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oo go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oo) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| ''(oo go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee) ahhea''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ee go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ee) assea''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(ee go) assee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oo) ahhea''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oo go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oo) assea''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| ''(oo go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ee) oase<u>s</u> (ee) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ee) oase<u>s</u> (ee) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(oo) oase<u>s</u> (oo) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
| ''(oo go) oada<u>s</u> (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ee) oase (ee) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ee) oase (ee) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(oo) oase (oo) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
| ''(oo go) oada (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑħ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
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==Syntax==
==Syntax==


The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with adverbials generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.
The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with converbs generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.


===Valency===
===Valency===
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>hh</u>ea
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿je̞çˈçɛ̯ɑː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ je̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TR</u>-see.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>ss</u>ea
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehheas
|phrase=ehhees
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçɛ̯ɑːs̠]
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-TR-see.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at it
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=esseas
|phrase=essees
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑːs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=it is looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
 
|}
 
====Reflexivity====
 
A verb can also be made reflexive by using a deictic marker in the transitivity slot, meaning a distinction is made between proximal and distal reflexivity, corresponding to the spatial deixis of nominals rather than the normally temporal deixis of verbs.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga aesããs
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.ʁɐ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga ao go aosãã ma
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.ʁɐ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
 
|}
 
Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between cases when the first and second person implications of the proximal deixis would otherwise collapse or as a proximate-obviative distinction.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑħ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee eebadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑħ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}


====Adverbialisation====
====Converbialisation====


The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into an adverbial, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.
The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo meh<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|phrase=ao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿ˈme̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmʲi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>LOC</u> DIST-TR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahbo go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahba go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahbo go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
| ''bahba go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
Line 516: Line 558:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahbo</u> ohhea''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''ao go <u>bahba</u> ohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahbo go</u> ao ossea''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ao ossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
Line 529: Line 571:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[oo oahdago bahbo go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ee oahdago esseanas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase=[oo oahdaga bahba go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ee oahdaga esseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈʔu̯oː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ‿ˈji̯eː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.ʁɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ ˈjɪw‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.ʁɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
Line 538: Line 580:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go oada esseanas no?
|phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
Line 548: Line 590:
In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.
In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.


====Interrogation, negation and emphasis====
====Modality====


Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.
Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.
Line 566: Line 608:
====Evidentiality====
====Evidentiality====


Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''ya'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 574: Line 616:
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ya''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}
|}
Line 580: Line 622:
==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved.
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some topic markers also exist that do not correspond to a locative verb, such as the oral ''o'', instead related to the active transitive verb ''oo'' "eat". Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Lemma
! Locative
! Topic
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| ''laa''
| ''la''
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| ''goo''
| ''go''
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| ''sãã''
| ''sa''
| :LIQ
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| ''see''
| ''se''
| :AER
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| ''boo''
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| ''doo''
| ''do''
| :PART
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| ''mee''
| ''me''
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| :INST
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|-
| —
| ''o''
| :ORAL
| Mouth and food
|}
|}


===Classificatory topicalisation===
===Classificatory topicalisation===


One function of locative verbs is to resolve potential ambiguities. When used solely for classification in its unmarked form, a locative verb is unstressed and thereby shortened, resembling a particle. It doubles as a grammatically obligatory topic marker.
An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|phrase=՚mmõõ bo
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
Line 632: Line 692:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ la
|phrase=՚mmõõ la
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ go
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:ACT
|translation=head (detached from the body)
}}
}}


|}
|}


Further verbs can be serially connected after indicating the nature of a nominal using a locative verb.
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications on the syntax.
 
{{gloss
|phrase=ao ammõõ bo oada
|IPA=[ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ]
|gloss=ao POSS-head TOP:CRESC shine.STAT.IND
|translation=Ao's hair is fair
}}
 
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑħ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}


Since the locative verbs are only necessary when introducing new information, this ties neatly into the established system of topicalisation by fronting and so the net effect is that this limitation does not make much of a difference to normal syntax. Nominals can then be unambiguously reüsed without the classifying verb, as the information is thenceforth known from the previously established context. Note that if the classified nominal had been animate in the above example (''mõõ'' is not) inversion would have been necessary in order to mark it as the patient rather than the agent as usual.
Unstressed locatives also apply to the pronominal-like nominals ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''maa'' "none".
 
Unstressed locatives are not applied to the pronominal-like nominals ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''maa'' "none".


===Conjunction===
===Conjunction===


In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.
In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo go ooda egoo
|phrase=ao go bahba go ooda egoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ‿jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-LOC DIST-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
Line 687: Line 729:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go algoo
|phrase=ao go ՚lgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT..IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (away)
|translation=Ao moves (away)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go aŋgoo
|phrase=ao go ՚ŋgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
}}
}}
Line 708: Line 750:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoo
|phrase=ao go negoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is below
|translation=Ao is below
}}
}}
Line 715: Line 757:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go nelgoo
|phrase=ao go nelgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao goes down
|translation=Ao moves down
}}
}}


|}
|}


===Use with adverbials===
===Use with converbs===


Adverbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.
Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.


{|
{|
Line 730: Line 772:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda sãã
|phrase=ahda sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̞̃ː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:LIQ.IND
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}
Line 737: Line 779:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda laa
|phrase=ahda laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑ̞ː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑː]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:STAT.IND
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the ocean
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}


Line 746: Line 788:
==Pragmatics and conventions==
==Pragmatics and conventions==


Being a verb-heavy language, Ash often lacks direct nominal counterparts to nouns in more analytic languages, instead expressing many common (and uncommon) concepts descriptively through its rich morphological and derivational verb system rather than by lexicalising deverbal nominals (although this also happens), one key factor again being the locative verbs.
Being a verb-heavy language, Ash often lacks direct nominal counterparts to nouns in more analytic languages, instead expressing many common (and uncommon) concepts descriptively through its rich morphological and derivational verb system rather than assigning nominal lexemes to them (although this also happens), one key factor again being the locative verbs.


{|
{|
Line 752: Line 794:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=nendsãndsada
|phrase=nendsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪn̠ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̞̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|IPA=[ɲɪn̠ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐ.ðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-VEN-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|gloss=SUB-VEN-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=by the (bottom of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water comes gushing down")
|translation=by the (bottom of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water comes gushing down")
}}
}}
Line 759: Line 801:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=neldsãndsada
|phrase=neldsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪɬ.t̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|IPA=[ɲɪɬ.t̠͡s̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐ.ðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-AND-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|gloss=SUB-AND-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=by the (top of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water goes gushing down")
|translation=by the (top of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water goes gushing down")
}}
}}
Line 769: Line 811:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=<u>dodso</u> go nõŋgo oŋgoone?
|phrase=<u>dodsa</u> go nõŋgo oŋgoone
|IPA=[ˈd̠o̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ʊ ɣʊ ˈn̠õ̞ŋ.ɡo̞‿wʊŋˈɡu̯oː.ɲɪ]
|IPA=[ˈd̠o̞ħ.t̠͡s̠ɐ‿ɣʊ ˈn̠õ̞ŋ.ɡo̞ wʊŋˈɡu̯oː.ɲɪ]
|gloss=<u>smoke.FREQ.NOM</u> TOP:ACT Q-DUR DIST-VEN-LOC:ACT.TRANS.OPT
|gloss=<u>smoke.FREQ.IND</u> TOP:ACT Q-CVB:DUR DIST-VEN-LOC:ACT.TRANS.OPT
|translation=when does the <u>train</u> arrive?
|translation=when does the <u>train</u> arrive?
}}
}}
Line 786: Line 828:
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase=ewoes
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no?
|phrase=ewoe no
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go ewoe no?
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|IPA=[ˈbɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣʊ‿jɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.OPT Q
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
|}
===Domestic vocabulary===
The verb ''soo'' carries many meanings related to the home. An important part of its usage is the focus on the host rather than the guest when describing a visit.
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ahbada esdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ˈʔɑħ.pɐ.ðɐ jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT appa-CVB:LOC PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=sooda
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ðɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=(at) home
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=sooga
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ʁɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.IND-CVB:DUR
|translation=[when ](at) home
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahbada esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ.ðɐ jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}
}}


Line 808: Line 888:
===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative adverbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs (reduced or not).
While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahbo go
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞ʝ.ʝɐ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣʊ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
}}


The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative adverbs to specify the hue.
The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative converb to specify the hue.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go oada
|phrase=bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈbɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a white dog
|translation=a white dog
Line 829: Line 909:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahbo go oada
|phrase=meyya bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞ʝ.ʝɐ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a light brown dog
|translation=a light brown dog
Prinsessa
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