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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image =  
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagesize = 100px
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", pronounced [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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===Phonemes===
===Phonemes===


The underlying sounds of Ash are few enough that a simple listing is preferable to a traditional table:
Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
Line 68: Line 68:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ha.ku//}}
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwah.taˌku/}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ]}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}}
| → ''oahdago'' "during the day"
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day"
|}
|}


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| [ʍ.ʍ]
| [ʍ.ʍ]
|-
|-
! {{IPA|/t͡s-/}}
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| [s̠.s̠]
| [s̠.s̠]
|-
|-
! {{IPA|/t͡ɬ-/}}
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
|colspan="2"| <center>[ɬ.ɬ]</center>
|colspan="2"| <center>[ɬ.ɬ]</center>
|}
|}
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==Morphology==
==Morphology==


Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and adverbials. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.
Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.


=== Verbs ===
=== Verbs ===


The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template looks as follows:
The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| Trans./Poss.
| TV
| Preverb
| Preverbs
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Class.
| Class.
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| Der.
| Der.
| State
| State
| Mood/Nom.
| Mood
| Conj.
| Inv.
| Adv.
| Converb.
| Enclitics
|}
|}


The nominalisation slot creates a deverbal nominal and the adverbialisation slot creates an adverbial and so these two serve to change the class of the word; the possession slot is only used on deverbal nominals and not on regular verbs.
TV refers to transitive-volitional marking, as the two categories are entwined.


====Stems====
====Stems====


Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine":
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
|}


All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The active or stative stems are the ones that are generally prone to being somewhat unpredictable, whereas the other three are formed productively. The transitional is often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the perfective or habitual active or stative.
All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The transitional is often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.


====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====
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|}
|}


Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ohwa'' "cook", related to ''oo'' "consume".
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''mohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in adverbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession (obligatory on inalienably possessed nominal) or be incorporated into a verb (in which case inalienably possessed nominal do lose their possessive marker).
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:
 
The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
|}


While there are few grammatical processes that modify nouns, derivational ones do exist. For example collective nouns can be formed through a reduplication process, such as ''ahba'' "the town of Appa" from ''ao'' "(sea) water".
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below).


===Adverbials===
===Converbs===


Adverbials are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions more than traditional adverbs, but serves that role as well.
Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.


Some prominent adverbialising suffixes:
Some prominent converbialising suffixes:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''-da''
| ''mehda'' "by the fire"
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-go''
| ''-wo''
| ''oadnago'' "in the morning"
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-ba''
| ''-wa''
| ''eaba'' "in order to see"
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
|-
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| ''eyya'' "like this"
|}
|}


===Deixis===
===Deixis===


The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. What does get commonly marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); adverbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the adverbial in question.
The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); converbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the converb in question.


The deictic stems are as follows:
The deictic stems are as follows:
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|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Neutral deixis sometimes surfaces epenthetically as ''a-'' due to phonotactic constraints, but is not underlyingly explicitly marked.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''eyʼ'' and ''owʼ'', shortened forms of ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' that tend to blend into the next word, often as [-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-] and [-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-], but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as [-ɪw-] and [-ʊj-].
 
==Syntax==
 
The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with adverbials generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.
 
===Valency===
 
====Transitivity and inversion====
 
Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>hh</u>ea
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿je̞çˈçɛ̯ɑː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TR</u>-see.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>ss</u>ea
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
 
|}
 
Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehheas
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçɛ̯ɑːs̠]
|gloss=PROX-TR-see.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at it
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=esseas
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑːs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.IND-CONJ
|translation=it is looking at me
}}
 
|}
 
====Incorporation====
 
There is a limit on two unmarked nominal arguments of a verb. There are two ways to introduce more arguments, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.
 
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
 
====Adverbialisation====
 
The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into an adverbial, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.
 
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo meh<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿ˈme̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>LOC</u> DIST-TR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
 
===Animacy===
 
While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| ''bahbo go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahbo go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
|-
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ahhoo''<br />"water is drunk"
| ''*sãã sa assoo''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
 
===Topicalisation===
 
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus will also receive a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahbo</u> ohhea''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahbo go</u> ao ossea''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| ''ao go <u>sãã</u> ohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ao ohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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====Simple intransitives====
====Simple intransitives====


In simple statements proximal deixis combined with a conjunct verb denotes a first person while combined with a disjunct verb it denotes a second person whereas in questions this is flipped. Distal deixis or an explicit nominal denotes a third person in both cases. Note that there is no number distinction and so for example first person can imply both "I" and "we" but for the sake of space only one translation is given for each example.
In simple statements proximal deixis combined with a conjunct verb denotes a first person, while combined with a disjunct verb it denotes a second person, whereas in questions this is flipped. Distal deixis or an explicit nominal denotes a third person in both cases. Note that there is no number distinction and so for example first person can imply both "I" and "we" but for the sake of space only one translation is given for each example.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| -
| -
| ''(ee) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(oo) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(ee) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(oo) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
| ''(owʼ go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(eyʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ee) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(eyʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oo) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(owʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oo) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| ''(owʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee) ahhea''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(eyʼ go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ee) assea''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(eyʼ go) assee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oo) ahhea''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(owʼ go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oo) assea''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| ''(owʼ go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ee) oase<u>s</u> (ee) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ee) oase<u>s</u> (ee) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(oo) oase<u>s</u> (oo) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ee) oase (ee) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ee) oase (ee) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(oo) oase (oo) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}


Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.
Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.
==Syntax==
The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with converbs generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.
===Valency===
====Transitivity and inversion====
Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ je̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
|}
Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehhees
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=essees
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
|}
====Reflexivity====
A verb can also be made reflexive by using a deictic marker in the transitivity slot, meaning a distinction is made between proximal and distal reflexivity, corresponding to the spatial deixis of nominals rather than the normally temporal deixis of verbs.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo aesããs
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ao go aosãã ma
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
|}
Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between cases when the first and second person implications of the proximal deixis would otherwise collapse or as a proximate-obviative distinction.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ eebadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
|}
====Incorporation====
There is a limit on two unmarked nominal arguments of a verb. There are two ways to introduce more arguments, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ħˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
====Converbialisation====
The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmʲi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
===Animacy===
While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence.
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| ''bahba go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahba go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
|-
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ahhoo''<br />"water is drunk"
| ''*sãã sa assoo''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
===Topicalisation===
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus will also receive a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahba</u> ohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ao ossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| ''ao go <u>sãã</u> ohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ao ohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}


===Subclauses===
===Subclauses===
Line 529: Line 572:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[oo oahdago bahbo go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ee oahdago esseanas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase=[owʼ oahdawo bahba go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [eyʼ oahdawo esseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈʔu̯oː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ‿ˈji̯eː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ ˈjɪw‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
Line 538: Line 581:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go oada esseanas no?
|phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
Line 548: Line 591:
In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.
In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.


====Interrogation, negation and emphasis====
====Modality====


Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.
Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.
Line 566: Line 609:
====Evidentiality====
====Evidentiality====


Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''ya'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 574: Line 617:
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ya''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}
|}
Line 580: Line 623:
==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved.
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Lemma
! Locative
! Topic
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| ''laa''
| LOC:STAT
| ''la''
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| ''goo''
| LOC:ACT
| ''go''
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| ''sãã''
| LOC:LIQ
| ''sa''
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| ''see''
| LOC:AER
| ''se''
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| ''boo''
| LOC:CRESC
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| ''doo''
| LOC:PART
| ''do''
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| ''mee''
| LOC:PYR
| ''me''
| Fire
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| :INST
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
|}


===Classificatory topicalisation===
===Classificatory topicalisation===


One function of locative verbs is to resolve potential ambiguities. When used solely for classification in its unmarked form, a locative verb is unstressed and thereby shortened, resembling a particle. It doubles as a grammatically obligatory topic marker.
An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.


{|
{|
Line 626: Line 682:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
Line 633: Line 689:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ la
|phrase=ammõõ la
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ go
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:ACT
|translation=head (detached from the body)
}}
}}


|}
|}


Further verbs can be serially connected after indicating the nature of a nominal using a locative verb.
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications on the syntax.
 
{{gloss
|phrase=ao ammõõ bo oada
|IPA=[ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=ao POSS-head TOP:CRESC shine.STAT.IND
|translation=Ao's hair is fair
}}
 
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Since the locative verbs are only necessary when introducing new information, this ties neatly into the established system of topicalisation by fronting and so the net effect is that this limitation does not make much of a difference to normal syntax. Nominals can then be unambiguously reüsed without the classifying verb, as the information is thenceforth known from the previously established context. Note that if the classified nominal had been animate in the above example (''mõõ'' is not) inversion would have been necessary in order to mark it as the patient rather than the agent as usual.
Unstressed locatives are not applied to the pronominal-like nominals ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''maa'' "none".


===Conjunction===
===Conjunction===


In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.
In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo go ooda egoo
|phrase=ao go bahba go ooda egoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ‿jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-LOC DIST-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
Line 682: Line 718:
===Specification===
===Specification===


To denote motion, an andative ("going") or venitive ("coming") prefix is placed into the verbal classifier slot.
Prefixes such as ''mo-'' "up; forth", ''ne-'' "down; away" and ''go-'' "around" can be used to specify location, with the translative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go algoo
|phrase=ao go negoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT..IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (away)
|translation=Ao is at the bottom
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go aŋgoo
|phrase=ao go negoona
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː.n̠ɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.TRANS.IND
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
|translation=Ao moves down
}}
}}


|}
|}


The preverb slot can be used to specify manner, location or direction.
===Use with converbs===
 
Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoo
|phrase=ao sada sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is below
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go nelgoo
|phrase=ao sada laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈɮɑː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao goes down
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}


|}
|}


===Use with adverbials===
==Pragmatics and conventions==


Adverbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.
===Modality===
 
Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as optatives, potentials and interrogatives.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda sãã
|phrase=ewoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̞̃ː]
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:LIQ.IND
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda laa
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑ̞ː]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:STAT.IND
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=(be) by the ocean
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}


|}
|}


==Pragmatics==
===Domestic vocabulary===


Being a verb-heavy language, Ash often lacks direct nominal counterparts to nouns in more analytic languages, instead expressing many common (and uncommon) concepts descriptively through its rich morphological and derivational verb system rather than by lexicalising deverbal nominals (although this also happens), one key factor again being the locative verbs.
The verb ''soo'' carries many meanings related to the home. An important part of its usage is the focus on the host rather than the guest when describing a visit.


{|
{{gloss
|phrase=ahba lada ao go esdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}


|{{gloss
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
|phrase=nendsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪn̠ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̞̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-VEN-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|translation=by the (bottom of the) waterfall (lit. "where water comes gushing down")
}}


|{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=neldsãndsada
|phrase=ahba lada esoonas
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪɬ.t̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=SUB-AND-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ
|translation=by the (top of the) waterfall (lit. "where water goes gushing down")
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}
}}


|}
===Colour terms===


As this example demonstrates, there is no one lexicalised nominal for the concept of a waterfall, but a fitting verb is used depending on the context. Nonetheless the phrase is possible to nominalise if grammatically necessary and sometimes this does result in lexicalisation.
While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=<u>dodso</u> go nõŋgo oŋgoone?
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈd̠o̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ʊ ɣʊ ˈn̠õ̞ŋ.ɡo̞‿wʊŋˈɡu̯oː.ɲɪ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=<u>smoke.FREQ.NOM</u> TOP:ACT Q-DUR DIST-VEN-LOC:ACT.TRANS.OPT
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|translation=when does the <u>train</u> arrive?
|translation=a brown dog
}}
}}


In such cases there may be a clear-cut distinction between such lexicalisations and productive formations.
The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative converb to specify the hue.
 
===Modality===
 
Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as optatives, potentials and interrogatives.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase=bahba go oada
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=a white dog
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no?
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go ewoe no?
|phrase=meyya bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pʊ ɣʊ‿jɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.OPT Q
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=a light brown dog
}}
}}


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