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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", pronounced [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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===Phonemes===
===Phonemes===


The underlying sounds of Ash are few enough that a simple listing is preferable to a traditional table:
Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
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===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters as well as the apostrophe to mark syllabic consonants:
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| n
| n
| ŋ
| ŋ
| ʼ
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ha.ka//}}
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwah.taˌka/}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐˌɣɐ]}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}}
| → ''oahdaga'' "during the day"
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day"
|}
|}


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==Morphology==
==Morphology==


Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and adverbials. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.
Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.


=== Verbs ===
=== Verbs ===
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|}
|}


Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''mohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in adverbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession (obligatory on inalienably possessed nominal) or be incorporated into a verb (in which case inalienably possessed nominal do lose their possessive marker).
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:
 
The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ʼmmõõ''
| ''ammõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
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Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below).
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below).


===Adverbials===
===Converbs===


Adverbials are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions more than traditional adverbs, but serves that role as well.
Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.


Some prominent adverbialising suffixes:
Some prominent converbialising suffixes:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''-da''
| ''mehda'' "by the fire"
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-ga''
| ''-wo''
| ''oadnago'' "in the morning"
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-ba''
| ''-wa''
| ''eaba'' "in order to see"
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
|-
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| ''eyya'' "like this"
|}
|}


===Deixis===
===Deixis===


The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); adverbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the adverbial in question.
The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); converbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the converb in question.


The deictic stems are as follows:
The deictic stems are as follows:
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|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Neutral deixis sometimes surfaces epenthetically as ''a-'' due to phonotactic constraints, but is not underlyingly explicitly marked.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''eyʼ'' and ''owʼ'', shortened forms of ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' that tend to blend into the next word, often as [-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-] and [-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-], but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as [-ɪw-] and [-ʊj-].


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| -
| -
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(oo go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(ee go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(oo go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
| ''(owʼ go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee go) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(eyʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ee go) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(eyʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oo go) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(owʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oo go) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| ''(owʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee go) ahhea''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(eyʼ go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ee go) assea''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(eyʼ go) assee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oo go) ahhea''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(owʼ go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oo go) assea''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| ''(owʼ go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(oo go) oada<u>s</u> (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(oo go) oada (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
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==Syntax==
==Syntax==


The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with adverbials generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.
The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with converbs generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.


===Valency===
===Valency===
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>hh</u>ee
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pʊ‿je̞çˈçi̯eː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ je̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TR</u>-see.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>ss</u>ee
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pʊ‿jɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehhees
|phrase=ehhees
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːs̠]
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-TR-see.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=essees
|phrase=essees
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga ayesããs
|phrase=oadnawo aesããs
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐˌɣɐ‿ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga ao go awosãã ma
|phrase=oadnawo ao go aosãã ma
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐˌɣɐ‿ʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː mɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.IND NEG
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ‿ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee eebadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ eebadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ‿ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pʊ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ħˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}


====Adverbialisation====
====Converbialisation====


The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into an adverbial, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.
The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo meh<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|phrase=ao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pʊ‿ˈme̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmʲi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>LOC</u> DIST-TR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahbo go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahba go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahbo go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
| ''bahba go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahbo</u> ohhea''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''ao go <u>bahba</u> ohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahbo go</u> ao ossea''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ao ossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[oo oahdago bahbo go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ee oahdago esseanas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase=[owʼ oahdawo bahba go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [eyʼ oahdawo esseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ‿ˈje̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ ˈjɪw‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go oada esseanas no?
|phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
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====Evidentiality====
====Evidentiality====


Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''ya'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ya''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadse ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}
|}


==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved.
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Lemma
! Locative
! Topic
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| ''laa''
| ''la''
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| ''goo''
| ''go''
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| ''sãã''
| ''sa''
| :LIQ
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| ''see''
| ''se''
| :AER
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| ''boo''
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| ''doo''
| ''do''
| :PART
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| ''mee''
| ''me''
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| :INST
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
|}


Line 668: Line 682:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
Line 675: Line 689:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ la
|phrase=ammõõ la
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ go
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:ACT
|translation=head (detached from the body)
}}
}}


Line 693: Line 700:
{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Unstressed locatives are not applied to the pronominal-like nominals ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''maa'' "none".


===Conjunction===
===Conjunction===
Line 705: Line 710:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo go ooda egoo
|phrase=ao go bahba go ooda egoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ‿jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-LOC PROX-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
Line 713: Line 718:
===Specification===
===Specification===


To denote motion, an andative ("going") or venitive ("coming") prefix is placed into the verbal classifier slot.
Prefixes such as ''mo-'' "up; forth", ''ne-'' "down; away" and ''go-'' "around" can be used to specify location, with the translative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go algoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT..IND
|translation=Ao moves (away)
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go aŋgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
}}
 
|}
 
The preverb slot can be used to specify manner, location or direction.


{|
{|
Line 739: Line 724:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoo
|phrase=ao go negoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is below
|translation=Ao is at the bottom
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go nelgoo
|phrase=ao go negoona
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː.n̠ɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.TRANS.IND
|translation=Ao moves down
|translation=Ao moves down
}}
}}
Line 753: Line 738:
|}
|}


===Use with adverbials===
===Use with converbs===


Adverbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.
Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda sãã
|phrase=ao sada sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:LIQ.IND
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda laa
|phrase=ao sada laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈɮɑː]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:STAT.IND
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the ocean
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}


Line 776: Line 761:


==Pragmatics and conventions==
==Pragmatics and conventions==
Being a verb-heavy language, Ash often lacks direct nominal counterparts to nouns in more analytic languages, instead expressing many common (and uncommon) concepts descriptively through its rich morphological and derivational verb system rather than assigning nominal lexemes to them (although this also happens), one key factor again being the locative verbs.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=nendsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪn̠ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-VEN-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|translation=by the (bottom of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water comes gushing down")
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=neldsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪɬ.t̠͡s̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-AND-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|translation=by the (top of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water goes gushing down")
}}
|}
As this example demonstrates, there is no one lexicalised nominal for the concept of a waterfall, but a fitting verb is used depending on the context. Nonetheless the phrase is possible to nominalise if grammatically necessary and sometimes this does result in lexicalisation.
{{gloss
|phrase=<u>dodso</u> go nõŋgo oŋgoone?
|IPA=[ˈd̠o̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ʊ ɣʊ ˈn̠õ̞ŋ.ɡo̞‿wʊŋˈɡu̯oː.ɲɪ]
|gloss=<u>smoke.FREQ.NOM</u> TOP:ACT Q-DUR DIST-VEN-LOC:ACT.TRANS.OPT
|translation=when does the <u>train</u> arrive?
}}
In such cases there may be a clear-cut distinction between such lexicalisations and productive formations.


===Modality===
===Modality===
Line 817: Line 771:
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase=ewoes
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no?
|phrase=ewoe no
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go ewoe no?
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pʊ ɣʊ‿jɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.OPT Q
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}
Line 842: Line 796:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ahbada esdsoes
|phrase=ahba lada ao go esdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ˈʔɑħ.pɐˌðɐ‿jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT appa-LOC PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
}}
Line 850: Line 804:
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.


{|
{{gloss
 
|phrase=ahba lada esoonas
|{{gloss
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|phrase=sooda
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ðɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.IND-LOC
|translation=(at) home
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=soogo
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ɣʊ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.IND-DUR
|translation=[when ](at) home
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahbada esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐˌðɐ‿jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa-LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}
}}
|}


===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative adverbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.
While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahbo go
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pʊ ɣʊ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
}}


The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative adverbs to specify the hue.
The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative converb to specify the hue.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go oada
|phrase=bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a white dog
|translation=a white dog
Line 898: Line 834:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahbo go oada
|phrase=meyya bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a light brown dog
|translation=a light brown dog
Prinsessa
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