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Replaced TV- gloss with DIR-
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|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|nativename = ''ʼạhgaa''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ʼạhgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ʼahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters as well as an apostrophe for contractions:
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters as well as an apostrophe to mark a word-initial glottal stop. A dot below a vowel is used to mark stress when ambiguous.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| a
| ạ
| ã
| ã
| ạ̃
| e
| e
| ẹ
| ẽ
| ẽ
| ẹ̃
| y
| y
| o
| o
| ọ
| õ
| õ
| ọ̃
| ı
| w
| w
| b
| b
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| s
| s
| h
| h
| ʼ
| ’
|}
|}


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| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}}
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}}
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day"
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day"
|}
|}
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Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.
Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.


===Phonological processes===
===Clusters===


Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.
Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.


* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* /h~ʔ/ is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation cascades through clusters; they are also palatalised word-finally and cluster-initially after /i/.
* Sibilant palatalisation cascades bidirectionally through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} word-finally and cluster-initially.


<div style="float: left">
<div style="float: left">
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
| [ɲ.ɲ]
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| [m.m]
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ç.ç]
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| [ʍ.ʍ]
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| [s̠.s̠]
| {{IPA|[s̠.s̠]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| [ʎ.ʎ]
| {{IPA|[ʎ.ʎ]}}
| [ɫ.ɫ]
| {{IPA|[ɫ.ɫ]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| /h.P/ [ħ.P]
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| /t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ħ.P]
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| [ʔ.P͡F]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| /ʔ.ᴰN/
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴰN/}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵇm]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| [ʔ.ᶢŋ]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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===Laterals===
===Laterals===


The lateral affricate /t͡ɬ/ patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate /t͡s/ but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. [t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative [ɬ] in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant [l] in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either [ʎ] or [ɫ].
The lateral affricate {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. {{IPA|[t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]}}. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant {{IPA|[l]}} in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either {{IPA|[ʎ]}} or {{IPA|[ɫ]}}.
 
===Syllabification===
 
In unstressed prefixes, colourless or epenthetic vowels may drop out in favour of syllabification of an adjacent fricative or nasal. This is represented in the romanisation by the vowel letter '''ı''' placed before the non-vocalic consonant letter.
 
An example is the inalienable possession prefix ''(a)n-'' becoming ''ın-''. Some word stems have inherent consonantal prefixes that get resolved the same way: ''n-doo-'' "(fire) smoke" becomes ''ındoo-'' in the absence of a prefix, and ''ʼadındoo-'' when the direct marker ''ʼah-'' is added.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="4" |
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
! colspan="5" | Stem
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| TV
| Agency
| Preverbs
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Class.
| Preverb
| '''Root'''
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Deriv.
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| Converb.
| Converb.
|}
|}
TV refers to transitive-volitional marking, as the two categories are entwined.


====Stems====
====Stems====
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! Indicative
! Indicative
| '''''oada'''''
| '''''oada'''''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}}
| ''oahda''
| ''oahda''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}}
| ''oadna''
| ''oadna''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}}
| ''oasda''
| ''oasda''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}}
|-
|-
! Optative
! Optative
| ''oase''
| ''oase''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑː.ʑɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ʑɪ]}}
| ''oadse''
| ''oadse''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| ''oadne''
| ''oadne''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
| ''oasdse''
| ''oasdse''
{{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Basic
! Basic
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo''''' "eat"</center>
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo'''''</center>
| ''oona''
| ''oona''
| ''ooda''
| ''ohda''
|-
|-
! Causative
! Causative
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya'' "feed"</center>
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya''</center>
| ''oena''
| ''oena''
| ''oeda''
| ''oehda''
|-
|-
! Frequentative
! Frequentative
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa'' "gorge"</center>
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa''</center>
| ''osdna''
| ''osdna''
| ''osda''
| ''osda''
|}
|}


Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''mohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ımmohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ammõõ''
| ''ımmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
|}
|}


Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below).
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor.


===Converbs===
===Converbs===
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! Suffix
! colspan="2" | Suffix
! Example
! Example
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''-da''
| ''-s''
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-wo''
| ''-wo''
| ''-h''
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-wa''
| ''-wa''
| ''-wı''
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
|-
|-
! Semblative
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| ''-ya''
| ''eyya'' "like this"
| ''-yı''
| ''ʼayya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}
The shorter forms are the historically regular outcomes of these suffixes after unstressed vowels; the longer forms have since taken over productively in normal verbs by analogy with the instances where those were always regular, but the shorter forms remain productive in the reduced forms of locative verbs (e.g. ''ʼahba las'' "in Appa"), and are still found in some common fossilised words, such as ''eas'' "here" and ''eah'' "now". Certain proper nouns retain this form for possessive constructions (e.g. ''ʼahbas ımmee'' "Appa('s) town square"). There are also instances of splits, such as the productive ''oadnada'' "where the sun rises" versus the fossilised ''oadnas'', referring specifically to the corresponding cardinal direction.


===Deixis===
===Deixis===
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|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''eyʼ'' and ''owʼ'', shortened forms of ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' that tend to blend into the next word, often as [-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-] and [-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-], but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as [-ɪw-] and [-ʊj-].
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa'' (reduced from ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' still used for emphasis), generally shortened and tending to blend into the next word, often as {{IPA|[-ɛ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-]}} and {{IPA|[-ɔ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-]}}, but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as {{IPA|[-ɪw-]}} and {{IPA|[-ʊj-]}}. In verbs with some form of TV marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ʼa-'' becomes ''ʼe-''.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| -
| -
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you pale?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(eyʼ go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(ea go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(oa go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(ea go) oada no''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(owʼ go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
| ''(oa go) oada no''<br />"are they pale?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(eyʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(eyʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(ea go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(owʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(owʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| ''(oa go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(eyʼ go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ʼahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(eyʼ go) assee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(ea go) ʼassee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(owʼ go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ʼahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(owʼ go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ʼassee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! Distal
|-
|-
! Conjunct source
! Conjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(owʼ go) oada (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}
|}
When the source is proximal the target can also be distal in which case it is always disjunct and refers to a third person.


====Indirect involvement====
====Indirect involvement====
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 451: Line 461:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>hh</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ je̞çˈçi̯eː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔe̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>ss</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehhees
|phrase=ʼehhees
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=essees
|phrase=ʼessees
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
Line 493: Line 503:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ayʼsããs
|phrase=oadnawo ʼaesããs
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
Line 500: Line 510:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ao go awʼsãã ma
|phrase=oadnawo ʼao go ʼaosãã ma
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
Line 513: Line 523:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ eyʼbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼeebadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 533: Line 543:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|phrase=ʼao go bahba od<u>sa</u>woyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ħˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}
Line 544: Line 554:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|phrase=ʼao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsawoyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmʲi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
Line 560: Line 570:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahba go ahhee''<br />"dogs see it"
| ''bahba go ʼahhee''<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahba go assee''<br />"dogs are seen"
| ''bahba go ʼassee''<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ahhee''<br />"water is seen"
| ''sãã sa ʼahhee''<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã sa assee''<br />(ungrammatical)
| ''*sãã sa ʼassee''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
|}


Line 578: Line 588:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahba</u> ohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''ʼao go <u>bahba</u> ʼohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ao ossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ʼao ʼossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''ao go <u>sãã</u> ohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''ʼao go <u>sãã</u> ʼohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ao ohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ʼao ʼohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


Line 591: Line 601:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[owʼ oahdawo bahba go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [eyʼ oahdawo esseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase=[owahdawo bahba go ʼossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdawo ʼesseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ ˈjɪw‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[o̞ˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ʔʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ jɪˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wo̞ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
Line 600: Line 610:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no
|phrase=bahba go oada ʼesseenas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}
}}
Line 622: Line 632:
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa no?''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
|}
|}
Line 689: Line 699:
| ''baa''
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| ''ba''
| :INST
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
|}
Line 700: Line 710:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ la
|phrase=ımmõõ la
|IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
}}
Line 715: Line 725:
|}
|}


Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications on the syntax.
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications for the syntax.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 729: Line 739:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba go owʼda egoo
|phrase=ʼao go bahba go oas egoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwo̞ːʊ̯.ðɐ jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑːɕ‿ɕɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
Line 737: Line 747:
===Specification===
===Specification===


Prefixes such as ''mo-'' "up; forth", ''ne-'' "down; away" and ''go-'' "around" can be used to specify location, with the translative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion.
Prefixes such as ''n-'' "up; forth" and ''l-'' "down; away" can be used to specify location, with the inchoative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion toward a destination, and the terminative away from it.


{|
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is down in Appa
}}


|{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoo
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoona
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː.n̠ɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.INCH.IND
|translation=Ao is at the bottom
|translation=Ao went down to Appa
}}
}}


|{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoona
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgohda
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː.n̠ɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈkʷo̞ħ.t̠ɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.INCH.IND
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.TERM.IND
|translation=Ao moves down
|translation=Ao went away from Appa
}}
}}
|}


===Use with converbs===
===Use with converbs===
Line 764: Line 777:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao sada sãã
|phrase=ʼao sas sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao sada laa
|phrase=ʼao sas laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈlɑː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd͡ɮɑː]
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}


|}
|}
===Possession===
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-s'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao gos ımmõõ la
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ‿z̠m̩ˈmũ̯õː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT-CVB:LOC INAL-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=Ao's head (lit. "head at Ao")
}}


==Pragmatics and conventions==
==Pragmatics and conventions==
Line 789: Line 813:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase=ewoes
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
Line 796: Line 820:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no
|phrase=ewoe no
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
Line 804: Line 828:
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}
Line 815: Line 839:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ahba lada ao go esdsoes
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go ʼesdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
}}
Line 824: Line 848:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ahba lada esoonas
|phrase=ʼahba las esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐɕ‿ɕɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}
}}
Line 832: Line 856:
===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


Colours are mainly expressed through comparative stative verbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ʼayya'' "blue; green".


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire.SEMB.STAT.IND dog TOP:ACT
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
}}


Some are expressed through non-derived verbs like ''oada''.
Some are expressed through regular stative verbs like ''oada''.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=oada bahba go
|phrase=oada bahba go
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞]
|IPA=[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog TOP:ACT
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a white dog
|translation=a white dog
}}
}}
Prinsessa
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