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|image = Ahba.svg
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|nativename = ''ảhga''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqə]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", pronounced [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ảhga'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ảhba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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===Phonemes===
===Phonemes===


The underlying sounds of Ash are few enough that a simple listing is preferable to a traditional table:
Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a~Ø i~j~Ø u~w~Ø/}}
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
|-
! Plosive
! Plosive
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|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
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|}
|}


The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair or triplet given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.
The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.


===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters as well as the apostrophe to mark syllabic consonants:
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| a
| ã
| ı
| e
| e
| ẽ
| y
| y
| o
| o
| õ
| w
| w
| b
| b
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| n
| n
| ŋ
| ŋ
| ʼ
|}
|}
Tilde (e.g. '''ã''') is used to mark nasalisation. Hook above (e.g. '''ả''') denotes a word-initial glottal stop.


An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ha.ka//}}
| {{IPA|//iʔ.Vʔˈu.wi//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwah.taˌka/}}
| → {{IPA|/ʔiʔˈwu.wi/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐˌɣɐ]}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → ''oahdaga'' "during the day"
| → ''ẻhhoe'' "hungry"
|}
|}


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===Prosody and stress===
===Prosody and stress===


Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, unless at the end of a word, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.
Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.


===Phonological processes===
===Clusters===


Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.
Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.


* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* /h~ʔ/ (and plosives before nasals) is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals and affricates.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates are fricatives intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation cascades bidirectionally through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} word-finally and cluster-initially.


<div style="float: left">
<div style="float: left">
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
| [ɲ.ɲ]
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| [m.m]
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ç.ç]
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| [ʍ.ʍ]
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| [s̠.s̠]
| {{IPA|[s̠.s̠]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
|colspan="2"| <center>[ɬ.ɬ]</center>
| {{IPA|[ʎ.ʎ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɫ.ɫ]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| /h.P/ [ħ.P]
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| /t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ħ.P]
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| [ʔ.P͡F]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| /ʔ.ᴰN/
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵇm]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| [ʔ.ᶢŋ]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="4" |
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
! colspan="4" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| TV
| Agency
| Preverbs
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Class.
| '''Root'''
| '''Root'''
| Der.
| Deriv.
| State
| State
| Mood
| Mood
| Inv.
| Involv.
| Converb.
| Converb.
|}
|}
TV refers to transitive-volitional marking, as the two categories are entwined.


====Stems====
====Stems====


Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine":
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!  
!
! Stative
! Stative
! Active
! Active
! Transitional
! Inchoative
! Terminative
|-
|-
! Indicative
! Indicative
| '''''oada'''''
| '''''oa'''''
| ''oahda''
| ''oahda''
| ''oadna''
| ''oadna''
| ''oasda''
|-
|-
! Optative
! Optative
| ''oase''
| ''oae''
| ''oadse''
| ''oadse''
| ''oadne''
| ''oadne''
| ''oasde''
|}
|}


All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The transitional is often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.
All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.


====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====


Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'', the potential ''-d-'' and the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), transitional and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-y-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs). These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Transitional
|-
! Basic
! Basic
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo''''' "eat"</center>
| ''oona''
|-
! Causative
! Causative
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya'' "feed"</center>
! Frequentative
| ''oena''
|-
! Potential
| colspan="2" | <center>''ooda'' "edible"</center>
| ''odna''
|-
|-
! Frequentative
| '''''oo'''''
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa'' "gorge"</center>
| ''oyya''
| ''osdna''
| ''odsa''
|}
|}
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in converbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession (obligatory on inalienably possessed nominal) or be incorporated into a verb (in which case inalienably possessed nominal do lose their possessive marker).
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:
 
The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ʼmmõõ''
| ''ımmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
|}
|}


Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below).
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor.


===Converbs===
===Converbs===
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! Suffix
! Long
! Short
! Example
! Example
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''-la'', ''-da''
| ''mehda'' "by the fire"
| ''-l''
| ''ınsonda'' "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-ga''
| ''-go''
| ''oadnaga'' "in the morning"
| ''-h''
| ''oadnah'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-ba''
| ''-ba''
| ''eeba'' "in order to see"
| ''-o''
| ''eahba'' "in order to see"
|-
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| ''-e''
| ''ảyya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}


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|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Neutral deixis sometimes surfaces epenthetically as ''a-'' due to phonotactic constraints, but is not underlyingly explicitly marked.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa''. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ả-'' becomes ''ẻ-''.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u>''<br />"I am warm"
| -
| -
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you warm?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(ea go) emea''<br />"you are warm"
| ''(oo go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(oa go) emea''<br />"they are warm"
| ''(ee go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(ea go) emea no''<br />"am I warm?"
| ''(oo go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
| ''(oa go) emea no''<br />"are they warm?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ee go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oo go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oo go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ee go) assee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oo go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oo go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! Distal
|-
|-
! Conjunct source
! Conjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said I am warm"
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said you are warm"
| ''(oo go) oada<u>s</u> (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said you are warm"
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said I am warm"
| ''(oo go) oada (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}
|}
When the source is proximal the target can also be distal in which case it is always disjunct and refers to a third person.


====Indirect involvement====
====Indirect involvement====
Line 410: Line 397:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas yo
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=TOP:CRESC Ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 424: Line 410:
===Valency===
===Valency===


====Transitivity and inversion====
====Agency====


Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
Transitivity and volition are tied up in a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>hw</u>ea ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿je̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿jɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
Line 451: Line 435:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehhees
|phrase=ẻhweas yo
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːs̠]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=essees
|phrase=ẻsseas e
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=OBS
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
}}
Line 473: Line 455:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga ayesããs
|phrase=oadnah ảyısããs yo
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐˌɣɐ‿ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga ao go awosãã ma
|phrase=oadnah ảo ga ảyısãã ma
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐˌɣɐ‿ʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː mɐ]
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND=NEG
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
Line 493: Line 473:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảhbadsas yo
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ‿ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee eyebadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ẻwıbadsas yo
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ‿ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 513: Line 491:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}
Line 524: Line 501:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba meh<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|phrase=ảo ga bahba med<u>la</u> odsoyya ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ˈme̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
Line 540: Line 516:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahba go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahba go ảhwea yo''<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahba go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
| ''bahba go ảssea yo''<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ahhoo''<br />"water is drunk"
| ''sãã da ảhwea yo''<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã sa assoo''<br />(ungrammatical)
| ''*sãã da ảssea yo''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
|}


===Topicalisation===
===Topicalisation===


New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus will also receive a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 558: Line 534:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahba</u> ohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''ảo ga <u>bahba</u> ỏhwea e''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ao ossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea e''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''ao go <u>sãã</u> ohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''ảo ga <u>sãã</u> ỏhwoo e''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ao ohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
| ''<u>sãã da</u> ảo ỏhwoo e''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


Line 571: Line 547:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[oo oahdaga bahba go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ee oahdaga esseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase=[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseaŋas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐˌɣɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ɣo̞‿wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ‿ˈje̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐˌɣɐ‿jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
Line 580: Line 555:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no?
|phrase=osya bahba go ẻsseaŋas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ‿jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}
}}
Line 602: Line 576:
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa no?''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
|}
|}
Line 622: Line 596:
==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved.
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers.


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Lemma
! Locative
! Topic
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| ''laa''
| ''la'', ''da''
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| ''goo''
| ''go'', ''ŋo''
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| ''sãã''
| ''sa''
| :LIQ
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| ''see''
| ''se''
| :AER
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| ''boa''
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| ''doo''
| ''do''
| :PART
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| ''mea''
| ''me''
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
|}


Line 667: Line 654:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=՚mmõõ bo
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=՚mmõõ la
|phrase=ımmõõ da
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=՚mmõõ go
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:ACT
|translation=head (detached from the body)
}}
}}


|}
|}


Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications on the syntax.
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications for the syntax.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Unstressed locatives also apply to the pronominal-like nominals ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''maa'' "none".


===Conjunction===
===Conjunction===
Line 705: Line 680:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba go ooda egoo
|phrase=ảo ga bahba go onda egoa e
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ɣo̞‿ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ‿jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.IND=OBS
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
===Specification===
To denote motion, an andative ("going") or venitive ("coming") prefix is placed into the verbal classifier slot.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ՚lgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (away)
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ՚ŋgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
}}
|}
The preverb slot can be used to specify manner, location or direction.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is below
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go nelgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves down
}}
|}


===Use with converbs===
===Use with converbs===
Line 760: Line 692:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda sãã
|phrase=ảo sal sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda laa
|phrase=ảo sal laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑː]
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}
Line 775: Line 705:
|}
|}


==Pragmatics and conventions==
===Possession===
 
Being a verb-heavy language, Ash often lacks direct nominal counterparts to nouns in more analytic languages, instead expressing many common (and uncommon) concepts descriptively through its rich morphological and derivational verb system rather than assigning nominal lexemes to them (although this also happens), one key factor again being the locative verbs.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=nendsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪn̠ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-VEN-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=by the (bottom of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water comes gushing down")
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=neldsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪɬ.t̠͡s̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-AND-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=by the (top of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water goes gushing down")
}}
 
|}


As this example demonstrates, there is no one lexicalised nominal for the concept of a waterfall, but a fitting verb is used depending on the context. Nonetheless the phrase is possible to nominalise if grammatically necessary and sometimes this does result in lexicalisation.
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-l'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=<u>dodsa</u> go nõŋgo oŋgoone?
|phrase=ảo gal osee go
|IPA=[ˈd̠o̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐ ɣʊ ˈn̠õ̞ŋ.ɡo̞‿wʊŋˈɡu̯oː.ɲɪ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS-CVB:LOC breath=TOP:ORAL
|gloss=<u>smoke.FREQ.IND</u> TOP:ACT Q-CVB:DUR DIST-VEN-LOC:ACT.TRANS.OPT
|translation=Ao's breath (lit. "breath at Ao")
|translation=when does the <u>train</u> arrive?
}}
}}


In such cases there may be a clear-cut distinction between such lexicalisations and productive formations.
==Pragmatics and conventions==


===Modality===
===Modality===
Line 815: Line 724:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase=ẻhhodses
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no
|phrase=ẻhhodses no
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ=Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|phrase=bahba go ẻhhodse no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ ɣʊ‿jɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT=Q
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
|}
===Domestic vocabulary===
The verb ''soo'' carries many meanings related to the home. An important part of its usage is the focus on the host rather than the guest when describing a visit.
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ahbada esdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ˈʔɑħ.pɐˌðɐ jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT appa-CVB:LOC PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=sooda
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ðɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=(at) home
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=sooga
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ɣɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.IND-CVB:DUR
|translation=[when ](at) home
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahbada esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐˌðɐ jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa-LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}
}}


Line 877: Line 745:
===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mea'' "fire" → ''nayya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ảo'' "sea" → ''ảyya'' "blue; green".


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|phrase=nayya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
}}
The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative converb to specify the hue.
{|
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a white dog
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a light brown dog
}}
|}


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