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|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ʼạhgaa''
|nativename = ''ảhga''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqə]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ʼạhgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ʼahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ảhga'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ảhba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/m~˜ n~˜/}}
| {{IPA|/m~˜ n~˜ ŋ~˜/}}
|}
|}


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===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters as well as an apostrophe to mark a word-initial glottal stop. A dot below a consonant letter is used to denote a syllabic realisation, and under a vowel to mark stress when ambiguous.
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| a
| ạ
| ı
| ã
| ạ̃
| e
| e
| ẹ
| ẽ
| ẹ̃
| y
| y
| o
| o
| ọ
| õ
| ọ̃
| w
| w
| b
| b
| d
| d
| g
| g
| m
| ṃ
| n
| ṇ
| l
| l
| ḷ
| s
| s
| ṣ
| h
| h
| ’
| m
| n
| ŋ
|}
|}
Tilde (e.g. '''ã''') is used to mark nasalisation. Hook above (e.g. '''ả''') denotes a word-initial glottal stop.


An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}}
| {{IPA|//iʔ.Vʔˈu.wi//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}}
| → {{IPA|/ʔiʔˈwu.wi/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day"
| → ''ẻhhoe'' "hungry"
|}
|}


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===Clusters===
===Clusters===


Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.
Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.


* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
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| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴰN/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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</div>
</div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
===Laterals===
The lateral affricate {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. {{IPA|[t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]}}. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant {{IPA|[l]}} in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either {{IPA|[ʎ]}} or {{IPA|[ɫ]}}.
===Syllabification===
In unstressed prefixes, colourless or epenthetic vowels may drop out in favour of syllabification of an adjacent fricative or nasal. This is represented in the romanisation by a dot placed under the non-vocalic consonant letter (vowels are simply represented as such), except word-initially where it is simply preceded by ''a-'' without a glottal stop apostrophe.
An example of the former is the inalienable possession prefix ''(a)n-'' becoming ''an-''. Some word stems have inherent consonantal prefixes that get resolved the same way: ''n-doo-'' "(fire) smoke" becomes ''andoo-'' in the absence of a prefix, and ''ʼadṇdoo-'' when the transitive-volitional ''ʼah-'' is added.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="4" |
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
! colspan="4" | Stem
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| TV
| Agency
| Preverbs
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Class.
| '''Root'''
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Deriv.
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| Converb.
| Converb.
|}
|}
TV refers to transitive-volitional marking, as the two categories are entwined.


====Stems====
====Stems====
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!  
!
! Stative
! Stative
! Active
! Active
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|-
|-
! Indicative
! Indicative
| '''''oada'''''
| '''''oa'''''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}}
| ''oahda''
| ''oahda''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}}
| ''oadna''
| ''oadna''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}}
| ''oasda''
| ''oasda''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}}
|-
|-
! Optative
! Optative
| ''oase''
| ''oae''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ʑɪ]}}
| ''oadse''
| ''oadse''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| ''oadne''
| ''oadne''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
| ''oasde''
| ''oasdse''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
|}
|}


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====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====


Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), inchoative, terminative and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-y-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs). These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
|-
! Basic
! Basic
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo''''' "eat"</center>
| ''oona''
| ''ooda''
|-
! Causative
! Causative
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya'' "feed"</center>
! Frequentative
| ''oena''
| ''oeda''
|-
|-
! Frequentative
| '''''oo'''''
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa'' "gorge"</center>
| ''oyya''
| ''osdna''
| ''odsa''
| ''osda''
|}
|}
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ammohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ammõõ''
| ''ımmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! colspan="2" | Suffix
! Long
! Short
! Example
! Example
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''-la'', ''-da''
| (''-s'')
| ''-l''
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
| ''ınsonda'' "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-wo''
| ''-go''
| (''-h'')
| ''-h''
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
| ''oadnah'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-wa''
| ''-ba''
| (''-u'')
| ''-o''
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
| ''eahba'' "in order to see"
|-
|-
! Semblative
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| ''-ya''
| (''-i'')
| ''-e''
| ''ʼayya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
| ''ảyya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}
The shorter forms given in parentheses are the historically regular outcomes of these suffixes after unstressed vowels; the longer forms have since taken over productively in normal verbs by analogy with the instances where those were always regular, but the shorter forms remain productive in the reduced forms of locative verbs (e.g. ''ʼahba las'' "in Appa"), and are still found in some common fossilised words, such as ''eyyas'' "here" and ''eyyah'' "now". Certain proper nouns retain this form for possessive constructions (e.g. ''ʼahbas ammee'' "Appa('s) town square"). There are also instances of splits, such as the productive ''oadnada'' "where the sun rises" versus the fossilised ''oadnas'', referring specifically to the corresponding cardinal direction.


===Deixis===
===Deixis===
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|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''eyya'' and ''owwa'', generally shortened and tending to blend into the next word, often as {{IPA|[-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-]}} and {{IPA|[-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-]}}, but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as {{IPA|[-ɪw-]}} and {{IPA|[-ʊj-]}}. In verbs with some form of TV marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ʼa-'' becomes ''ʼe-''.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa''. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ả-'' becomes ''ẻ-''.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(eyya go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u>''<br />"I am warm"
| -
| -
| ''(eyya go) oada<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you pale?"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you warm?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(eyya go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(ea go) emea''<br />"you are warm"
| ''(owwa go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(oa go) emea''<br />"they are warm"
| ''(eyya go) oada no''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(ea go) emea no''<br />"am I warm?"
| ''(owwa go) oada no''<br />"are they pale?"
| ''(oa go) emea no''<br />"are they warm?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(eyya go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(eyya go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(owwa go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(owwa go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(eyya go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(eyya go) assee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(owwa go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(owwa go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! Distal
|-
|-
! Conjunct source
! Conjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(eyya go) oada<u>s</u> (eyya go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said I am warm"
| ''(eyya go) oada<u>s</u> (eyya go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said you are warm"
| ''(owwa go) oada<u>s</u> (owwa go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(eyya go) oada (ʼeyya go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said you are warm"
| ''(eyya go) oada (ʼeyya go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said I am warm"
| ''(owwa go) oada (ʼowwa go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}
|}
When the source is proximal the target can also be distal in which case it is always disjunct and refers to a third person.


====Indirect involvement====
====Indirect involvement====
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas yo
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=TOP:CRESC Ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
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===Valency===
===Valency===


====Transitivity and inversion====
====Agency====


Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
Transitivity and volition are tied up in a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>hh</u>ee
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>hw</u>ea ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔe̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>ss</u>ee
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼehhees
|phrase=ẻhweas yo
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼessees
|phrase=ẻsseas e
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=OBS
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ʼayesããs
|phrase=oadnah ảyısããs yo
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ʼao go ʼawosãã ma
|phrase=oadnah ảo ga ảyısãã ma
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND=NEG
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyya ʼehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảhbadsas yo
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞ːɪ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo eyya ʼeyebadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ẻwıbadsas yo
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞ːɪ̯ ʔe̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|phrase=ảo ga bahba med<u>la</u> odsoyya ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahba go ʼahhee''<br />"dogs see it"
| ''bahba go ảhwea yo''<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahba go ʼassee''<br />"dogs are seen"
| ''bahba go ảssea yo''<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ʼahhee''<br />"water is seen"
| ''sãã da ảhwea yo''<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã sa ʼassee''<br />(ungrammatical)
| ''*sãã da ảssea yo''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ʼao go <u>bahba</u> ʼohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''ảo ga <u>bahba</u> ỏhwea e''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ʼao ʼossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea e''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''ʼao go <u>sãã</u> ʼohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''ảo ga <u>sãã</u> ỏhwoo e''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ʼao ʼohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
| ''<u>sãã da</u> ảo ỏhwoo e''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


Line 612: Line 547:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[owahdawo bahba go ʼossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdawo ʼesseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase=[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseaŋas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[o̞ˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ʔʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ jɪˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wo̞ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada ʼesseenas no
|phrase=osya bahba go ẻsseaŋas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
Line 643: Line 576:
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa no?''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
|}
|}
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==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers.


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:
Line 674: Line 607:
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| ''laa''
| ''la''
| ''la'', ''da''
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| ''goo''
| ''go''
| ''go'', ''ŋo''
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
Line 693: Line 626:
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| ''boa''
| ''bo''
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
Line 703: Line 636:
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| ''mea''
| ''me''
| ''me''
| :PYR
| :PYR
Line 710: Line 643:
| ''baa''
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| ''ba''
| :INST
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
|}
Line 721: Line 654:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
Line 728: Line 660:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ la
|phrase=ımmõõ da
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
Line 739: Line 670:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 750: Line 680:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba go owwas egoo
|phrase=ảo ga bahba go onda egoa e
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwo̞w.wɐɕ‿ɕɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.IND=OBS
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
===Specification===
Prefixes such as ''mo-'' "up; forth", ''ne-'' "down; away" and ''go-'' "around" can be used to specify location, with the inchoative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion toward a destination, and the terminative away from it.
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go enegoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is down in Appa
}}
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go enegoona
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɲɪˈɣu̯oː.n̠ɐ]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.INCH.IND
|translation=Ao went down to Appa
}}
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go enegohda
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɲɪˈɣo̞ħ.t̠ɐ]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.TERM.IND
|translation=Ao went away from Appa
}}
}}


Line 788: Line 692:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao sas sãã
|phrase=ảo sal sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
Line 795: Line 698:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao sas laa
|phrase=ảo sal laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd͡ɮɑː]
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=(be) by the sea
Line 805: Line 707:
===Possession===
===Possession===


Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-s'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-l'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao gos ammõõ la
|phrase=ảo gal osee go
|IPA=[ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ‿z̠m̩.mũ̯õː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS-CVB:LOC breath=TOP:ORAL
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT-CVB:LOC INAL-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=Ao's breath (lit. "breath at Ao")
|translation=Ao's head (lit. "head at Ao")
}}
}}


Line 823: Line 724:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase=ẻhhodses
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no
|phrase=ẻhhodses no
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ=Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|phrase=bahba go ẻhhodse no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT=Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}


|}
|}
===Domestic vocabulary===
The verb ''soo'' carries many meanings related to the home. An important part of its usage is the focus on the host rather than the guest when describing a visit.
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go ʼesdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐɕ‿ɕɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}


===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ʼayya'' "blue; green".
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mea'' "fire" → ''nayya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ảo'' "sea" → ''ảyya'' "blue; green".


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|phrase=nayya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
Some are expressed through regular stative verbs like ''oada''.
{{gloss
|phrase=oada bahba go
|IPA=[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a white dog
}}
}}


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