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frequentative -> intensive, FREQ -> INTS
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|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ʼạhgaa''
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqə]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
|notice = IPA
|notice = IPA
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ʼạhgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ʼahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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|-
|-
! Plosive
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p~β t~ð k~ɣ/}}
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ~ɬ t͡s~s/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/m~˜ n~˜ ŋ~˜/}}
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}
|}


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===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters as well as an apostrophe to mark a word-initial glottal stop. A dot below a vowel is used to mark stress when ambiguous.
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| {{ash|a}}
| ạ
| {{ash|ı}}
| ã
| {{ash|e}}
| ạ̃
| {{ash|y}}
| e
| {{ash|o}}
| ẹ
| {{ash|w}}
| ẽ
| {{ash|b}}
| ẹ̃
| {{ash|d}}
| y
| {{ash|g}}
| o
| {{ash|l}}
| ọ
| {{ash|s}}
| õ
| {{ash|h}}
| ọ̃
| {{ash|m}}
| ı
| {{ash|n}}
| w
| {{ash|ŋ}}
| b
| d
| g
| m
| n
| ŋ
| l
| s
| h
| ’
|}
|}
Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal.


An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}}
| {{IPA|//ih.Vhˈu.wi//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.wi/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day"
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}
|}


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! {{IPA|/-w/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
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! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴰN/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
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</div>
</div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
===Laterals===
The lateral affricate {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. {{IPA|[t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]}}. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant {{IPA|[l]}} in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either {{IPA|[ʎ]}} or {{IPA|[ɫ]}}.
===Syllabification===
In unstressed prefixes, colourless or epenthetic vowels may drop out in favour of syllabification of an adjacent fricative or nasal. This is represented in the romanisation by the vowel letter '''ı''' placed before the non-vocalic consonant letter.
An example is the inalienable possession prefix ''(a)n-'' becoming ''ın-''. Some word stems have inherent consonantal prefixes that get resolved the same way: ''n-doo-'' "(fire) smoke" becomes ''ındoo-'' in the absence of a prefix, and ''ʼadındoo-'' when the direct marker ''ʼah-'' is added.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
! colspan="4" | Stem
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| Agency
| Agency
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Preverb
| '''Root'''
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Deriv.
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====Stems====
====Stems====


Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!  
!
! Stative
! Stative
! Active
! Active
! Inchoative
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Terminative
! Intensive
|-
|-
! Indicative
! Realis
| '''''oada'''''
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑː]}}
| ''oahda''
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑħ.t̠ə]}}
| ''oadna''
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ə]}}
| ''oasda''
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑs̺.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.t̺͡s̺ə]}}
|-
|-
! Optative
! Irrealis
| ''oase''
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ʑɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| ''oadse''
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| ''oadne''
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
| ''oasdse''
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
|}
|}


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====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====


Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), inchoative, terminative and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
|-
! Basic
! Basic
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo'''''</center>
| ''oona''
| ''ohda''
|-
! Causative
! Causative
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya''</center>
! Intensive
| ''oena''
| ''oehda''
|-
|-
! Frequentative
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa''</center>
| {{ash|oyya}}
| ''osdna''
| {{ash|odsa}}
| ''osda''
|}
|}
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ımmohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ımmõõ''
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| ''emmõõ''
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| ''ommõõ''
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! colspan="2" | Suffix
! Long
! Short
! Example
! Example
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}
| ''-s''
| {{ash|-s}}
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
| {{ash|ınsooda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-wo''
| {{ash|-ga}}, {{ash|-ya}}
| ''-h''
| {{ash|-h}}
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-wa''
| {{ash|-ba}}, {{ash|-wa}}
| ''-wı''
| {{ash|-o}}
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
| {{ash|eahba}} "in order to see"
|-
|-
! Semblative
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| {{ash|-ya}}
| ''-yı''
| {{ash|-e}}
| ''ʼayya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}
The shorter forms are the historically regular outcomes of these suffixes after unstressed vowels; the longer forms have since taken over productively in normal verbs by analogy with the instances where those were always regular, but the shorter forms remain productive in the reduced forms of locative verbs (e.g. ''ʼahba las'' "in Appa"), and are still found in some common fossilised words, such as ''eas'' "here" and ''eah'' "now". Certain proper nouns retain this form for possessive constructions (e.g. ''ʼahbas ımmee'' "Appa('s) town square"). There are also instances of splits, such as the productive ''oadnada'' "where the sun rises" versus the fossilised ''oadnas'', referring specifically to the corresponding cardinal direction.


===Deixis===
===Deixis===
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|-
|-
! Proximal
! Proximal
| ''e-''
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
|-
! Distal
! Distal
| ''o-''
| {{ash|o-}}
|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa'' (reduced from ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' still used for emphasis), generally shortened and tending to blend into the next word, often as {{IPA|[-ɛ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-]}} and {{IPA|[-ɔ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-]}}, but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as {{IPA|[-ɪw-]}} and {{IPA|[-ʊj-]}}. In verbs with some form of TV marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ʼa-'' becomes ''ʼe-''.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.
In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.


Conjunct is marked by the suffix ''-s'' and disjunct is unmarked.
Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.


====Simple intransitives====
====Simple intransitives====
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u>}}<br />"I am warm"
| -
| -
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you pale?"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"are you warm?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea}}<br />"you are warm"
| ''(oa go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| {{ash|(oa go) emea}}<br />"they are warm"
| ''(ea go) oada no''<br />"am I pale?"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea no}}<br />"am I warm?"
| ''(oa go) oada no''<br />"are they pale?"
| {{ash|(oa go) emea no}}<br />"are they warm?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oa go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) ʼahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ʼassee''<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oa go) ʼahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ʼassee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I said I am warm"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa yo}}<br />"you said you are warm"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I said you are warm"
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa yo}}<br />"you said I am warm"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ảo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF.TOP Ao PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
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===Valency===
===Valency===


====Transitivity and inversion====
====Agency====


Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
Transitivity and volition are tied up in a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>hh</u>ee
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔe̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>ss</u>ee
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼehhees
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼessees
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=EXP
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
}}
Line 503: Line 468:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ʼaesããs
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ʼao go ʼaosãã ma
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS=NEG
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
Line 523: Line 486:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼehbadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼeebadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 543: Line 504:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba od<u>sa</u>woyya
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}
Line 554: Line 514:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsawoyya
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba meh<u>da</u> odsoyya ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
Line 570: Line 529:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahba go ʼahhee''<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahba go ʼassee''<br />"dogs are watched"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ʼahhee''<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã sa ʼassee''<br />(ungrammatical)
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
|}


Line 588: Line 547:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ʼao go <u>bahba</u> ʼohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|ảo ga <u>bahba</u> ỏhhea e}}<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ʼao ʼossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea e}}<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''ʼao go <u>sãã</u> ʼohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| {{ash|ảo ga <u>sa͠a</u> ỏhyoo e}}<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ʼao ʼohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> ảo ỏhyoo e}}<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


Line 601: Line 560:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[owahdawo bahba go ʼossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdawo ʼesseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseaŋas yo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|IPA=[o̞ˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ʔʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ jɪˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wo̞ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.RLS-DUR dog=CLF.TOP DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.RLS]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.RLS-DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.RLS-CONJ=DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
Line 610: Line 568:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada ʼesseenas no
|phrase={{ash|osya bahba go ẻsseaŋas no}}
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=light-SEMB gloss=dog=CLF.TOP shine.STAT.RLS PROX-INV-see.INCH.RLS-CONJ=Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}
}}
Line 621: Line 578:


====Modality====
====Modality====
Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 628: Line 583:
! Negative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Interrogative
! Emphatic
! Desiderative
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa}}<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
| {{ash|ebadse sa}}<br />"hopefully weaving"
|}
|}


====Evidentiality====
====Evidentiality====


Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Experiential
! Observational
! Reportative
! Quotative
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}
|}


==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:
Line 658: Line 611:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Locative
! Topic
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| {{ash|laa}}
| ''la''
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| {{ash|goo}}
| ''go''
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| ''sa''
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| {{ash|see}}
| ''se''
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| {{ash|boa}}
| ''bo''
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| {{ash|doo}}
| ''do''
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| {{ash|mea}}
| ''me''
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
|-
| ''baa''
| {{ash|baa}}
| ''ba''
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:
{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}
|}


Line 710: Line 679:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ımmõõ la
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
}}
Line 728: Line 695:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ảo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP ao PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 739: Line 705:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao go bahba go oas egoo
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba go onda egoa e}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑːɕ‿ɕɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog=CLF.TOP DIST-LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.RLS=EXP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}


===Specification===
===Use with converbs===


Prefixes such as ''n-'' "up; forth" and ''l-'' "down; away" can be used to specify location, with the inchoative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion toward a destination, and the terminative away from it.
Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.


{{gloss
{|
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoo
 
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː]
|{{gloss
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|phrase={{ash|ảo sas sa͠a}}
|translation=Ao is down in Appa
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoona
|phrase={{ash|ảo sas laa}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː.n̠ɐ]
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.RLS
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.INCH.IND
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=Ao went down to Appa
}}
}}


{{gloss
|}
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgohda
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈkʷo̞ħ.t̠ɐ]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.TERM.IND
|translation=Ao went away from Appa
}}


===Use with converbs===
===Possession===


Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.
The fossilised set of nouns that can take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao sas sãã
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga ndoo ya}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC POSS-foot=CLF.TOP
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao's foot
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao sas laa
|phrase={{ash|ảo gã bmo͠o na}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd͡ɮɑː]
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao's head
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}


|}
|}


===Possession===
Otherwise the locative converbialiser {{ash|-s}} serves to mark the possessor of a possessum.
 
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-s'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼao gos ımmõõ la
|phrase={{ash|ảo gas osee go}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ‿z̠m̩ˈmũ̯õː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC breath=CLF.TOP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT-CVB:LOC INAL-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=Ao's breath (lit. "breath at Ao")
|translation=Ao's head (lit. "head at Ao")
}}
}}


Line 807: Line 762:
===Modality===
===Modality===


Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as optatives, potentials and interrogatives.
Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhodses}}
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhodses no}}
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR-CONJ=Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhodse no}}
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR=Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}


|}
|}
===Domestic vocabulary===
The verb ''soo'' carries many meanings related to the home. An important part of its usage is the focus on the host rather than the guest when describing a visit.
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go ʼesdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
{{gloss
|phrase=ʼahba las esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐɕ‿ɕɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}


===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ʼayya'' "blue; green".
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|ảo}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green".


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|phrase={{ash|nayya bahba go}}
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog=CLF.TOP
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
Some are expressed through regular stative verbs like ''oada''.
{{gloss
|phrase=oada bahba go
|IPA=[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a white dog
}}
}}


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