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Revision as of 15:35, 15 April 2021

3,486 bytes removed ,  15 April 2021
m
frequentative -> intensive, FREQ -> INTS
(Bunch of orthography changes. Page still isn't up to date with revised grammar but I'm still pondering so not yet…)
m (frequentative -> intensive, FREQ -> INTS)
(43 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
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|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ạ̉hgaa''
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqə]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
|notice = IPA
|notice = IPA
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ạ̉hgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ảhba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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|-
|-
! Plosive
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p~β t~ð k~ɣ/}}
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ~ɬ t͡s~s/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/m~˜ n~˜ ŋ~˜/}}
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| {{ash|a}}
| e
| {{ash|ı}}
| y
| {{ash|e}}
| o
| {{ash|y}}
| ı
| {{ash|o}}
| w
| {{ash|w}}
| b
| {{ash|b}}
| d
| {{ash|d}}
| g
| {{ash|g}}
| m
| {{ash|l}}
| n
| {{ash|s}}
| ŋ
| {{ash|h}}
| l
| {{ash|m}}
| s
| {{ash|n}}
| h
| {{ash|ŋ}}
| ’
|}
|}


Tilde (e.g. ã) is used to mark nasalisation. Hook above (e.g. ả) denotes a word-initial glottal stop. Dot below (e.g. ạ) signifies otherwise ambiguous stress.
Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal.


An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//iʔ.Vʔˈuwi//}}
| {{IPA|//ih.Vhˈu.wi//}}
| → {{IPA|/ʔiʔˈwuj/}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.wi/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔe̞ʍˈʍʊːɪ̯]}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → ''ẻhhoe'' "hungry"
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}
|}


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! {{IPA|/-w/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
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! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴰN/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
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</div>
</div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
===Laterals===
The lateral affricate {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. {{IPA|[t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]}}. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant {{IPA|[l]}} in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either {{IPA|[ʎ]}} or {{IPA|[ɫ]}}.
===Syllabification===
In unstressed prefixes, colourless or epenthetic vowels may drop out in favour of syllabification of an adjacent fricative or nasal. This is represented in the romanisation by the vowel letter '''ı''' placed before the non-vocalic consonant letter.
An example is the inalienable possession prefix ''(a)n-'' becoming ''ın-''. Some word stems have inherent consonantal prefixes that get resolved the same way: ''n-doo-'' "(fire) smoke" becomes ''ındoo-'' in the absence of a prefix, and ''ảdındoo-'' when the direct marker ''ảh-'' is added.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
! colspan="4" | Stem
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| Agency
| Agency
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Preverb
| '''Root'''
| '''Root'''
| Deriv.
| Deriv.
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====Stems====
====Stems====


Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!  
!
! Stative
! Stative
! Active
! Active
! Inchoative
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Terminative
! Intensive
|-
|-
! Indicative
! Realis
| '''''oada'''''
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑː]}}
| ''oahda''
| {{ash|oahda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑħ.t̠ə]}}
| ''oadna''
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ə]}}
| ''oasda''
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑs̺.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.t̺͡s̺ə]}}
|-
|-
! Optative
! Irrealis
| ''oase''
| {{ash|oae}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ʑɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| ''oadse''
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| ''oadne''
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
| ''oasde''
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
|}
|}


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====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====


Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), inchoative, terminative and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Stative
! Active
! Inchoative
! Terminative
|-
! Basic
! Basic
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo'''''</center>
| ''oona''
| ''ohda''
|-
! Causative
! Causative
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya''</center>
! Intensive
| ''oena''
| ''oehda''
|-
|-
! Frequentative
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa''</center>
| {{ash|oyya}}
| ''osdna''
| {{ash|odsa}}
| ''osda''
|}
|}
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ımmohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ımmõõ''
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| ''emmõõ''
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| ''ommõõ''
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! colspan="2" | Suffix
! Long
! Short
! Example
! Example
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}
| ''-s''
| {{ash|-s}}
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
| {{ash|ınsooda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-wo''
| {{ash|-ga}}, {{ash|-ya}}
| ''-h''
| {{ash|-h}}
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-wa''
| {{ash|-ba}}, {{ash|-wa}}
| ''-wı''
| {{ash|-o}}
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
| {{ash|eahba}} "in order to see"
|-
|-
! Semblative
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| {{ash|-ya}}
| ''-yı''
| {{ash|-e}}
| ''ảyya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}
The shorter forms are the historically regular outcomes of these suffixes after unstressed vowels; the longer forms have since taken over productively in normal verbs by analogy with the instances where those were always regular, but the shorter forms remain productive in the reduced forms of locative verbs (e.g. ''ảhba las'' "in Appa"), and are still found in some common fossilised words, such as ''eas'' "here" and ''eah'' "now". Certain proper nouns retain this form for possessive constructions (e.g. ''ảhbas ımmee'' "Appa('s) town square"). There are also instances of splits, such as the productive ''oadnada'' "where the sun rises" versus the fossilised ''oadnas'', referring specifically to the corresponding cardinal direction.


===Deixis===
===Deixis===
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|-
|-
! Proximal
! Proximal
| ''e-''
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
|-
! Distal
! Distal
| ''o-''
| {{ash|o-}}
|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa'' (reduced from ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' still used for emphasis), generally shortened and tending to blend into the next word, often as {{IPA|[-ɛ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-]}} and {{IPA|[-ɔ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-]}}, but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as {{IPA|[-ɪw-]}} and {{IPA|[-ʊj-]}}. In verbs with some form of TV marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ả-'' becomes ''ẻ-''.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.
In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.


Conjunct is marked by the suffix ''-s'' and disjunct is unmarked.
Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.


====Simple intransitives====
====Simple intransitives====
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u>}}<br />"I am warm"
| -
| -
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you pale?"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"are you warm?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea}}<br />"you are warm"
| ''(oa go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| {{ash|(oa go) emea}}<br />"they are warm"
| ''(ea go) oada no''<br />"am I pale?"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea no}}<br />"am I warm?"
| ''(oa go) oada no''<br />"are they pale?"
| {{ash|(oa go) emea no}}<br />"are they warm?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) ảhhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ảssea<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oa go) ảhhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ảssea<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) ảhhea''<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ảssea''<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oa go) ảhhea''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ảssea''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I said I am warm"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa yo}}<br />"you said you are warm"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I said you are warm"
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa yo}}<br />"you said I am warm"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ảo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF.TOP Ao PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
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===Valency===
===Valency===


====Transitivity and inversion====
====Agency====


Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
Transitivity and volition are tied up in a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo go bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔe̞çˈçɛːɑ̯]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo go bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ẻhheas
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçɛːɑ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ẻsseas
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=EXP
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
}}
Line 496: Line 468:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ảesããs
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnawo ảo go ảosãã ma
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS=NEG
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
Line 516: Line 486:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ảhbadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ẻebadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 536: Line 504:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo go bahba od<u>sa</u>woyya
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}
Line 547: Line 514:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsawoyya
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba meh<u>da</u> odsoyya ga}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
Line 563: Line 529:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahba go ảhhea''<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahba go ảssea''<br />"dogs are watched"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ảhhea''<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã sa ảssea''<br />(ungrammatical)
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
|}


Line 581: Line 547:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ảo go <u>bahba</u> ỏhhea''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|ảo ga <u>bahba</u> ỏhhea e}}<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea e}}<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''ảo go <u>sãã</u> ỏhhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| {{ash|ảo ga <u>sa͠a</u> ỏhyoo e}}<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ảo ỏhhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> ảo ỏhyoo e}}<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


Line 594: Line 560:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[owahdawo bahba go ỏssoena]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdawo ẻsseanas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseaŋas yo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|IPA=[o̞ˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ʔʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ jɪˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wo̞ ʔɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.RLS-DUR dog=CLF.TOP DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.RLS]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.RLS-DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.RLS-CONJ=DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
Line 603: Line 568:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada ẻsseanas no
|phrase={{ash|osya bahba go ẻsseaŋas no}}
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ʔɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=light-SEMB gloss=dog=CLF.TOP shine.STAT.RLS PROX-INV-see.INCH.RLS-CONJ=Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}
}}
Line 614: Line 578:


====Modality====
====Modality====
Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 621: Line 583:
! Negative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Interrogative
! Emphatic
! Desiderative
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa}}<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
| {{ash|ebadse sa}}<br />"hopefully weaving"
|}
|}


====Evidentiality====
====Evidentiality====


Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Experiential
! Observational
! Reportative
! Quotative
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}
|}


==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:
Line 651: Line 611:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Locative
! Topic
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| {{ash|laa}}
| ''la''
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| {{ash|goo}}
| ''go''
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| ''sa''
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| {{ash|see}}
| ''se''
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| {{ash|boa}}
| ''bo''
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| {{ash|doo}}
| ''do''
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| {{ash|mea}}
| ''me''
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
|-
| ''baa''
| {{ash|baa}}
| ''ba''
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:
{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}
|}


Line 703: Line 679:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ımmõõ la
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
}}
Line 721: Line 695:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ảo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP ao PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 732: Line 705:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo go bahba go oas egoo
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba go onda egoa e}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑːɕ‿ɕɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog=CLF.TOP DIST-LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.RLS=EXP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
Line 745: Line 717:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo sas sãã
|phrase={{ash|ảo sas sa͠a}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo sas laa
|phrase={{ash|ảo sas laa}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd͡ɮɑː]
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.RLS
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}
Line 762: Line 732:
===Possession===
===Possession===


Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-s'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.
The fossilised set of nouns that can take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC POSS-foot=CLF.TOP
|translation=Ao's foot
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=Ao's head
}}
 
|}
 
Otherwise the locative converbialiser {{ash|-s}} serves to mark the possessor of a possessum.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo gos ımmõõ la
|phrase={{ash|ảo gas osee go}}
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ‿z̠m̩ˈmũ̯õː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC breath=CLF.TOP
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT-CVB:LOC INAL-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=Ao's breath (lit. "breath at Ao")
|translation=Ao's head (lit. "head at Ao")
}}
}}


Line 775: Line 762:
===Modality===
===Modality===


Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as optatives, potentials and interrogatives.
Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhodses}}
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhodses no}}
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR-CONJ=Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhodse no}}
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR=Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}


|}
|}
===Domestic vocabulary===
The verb ''soo'' carries many meanings related to the home. An important part of its usage is the focus on the host rather than the guest when describing a visit.
{{gloss
|phrase=ảhba las ảo go ẻszoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
{{gloss
|phrase=ảhba las esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐɕ‿ɕɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}


===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ảo'' "sea" → ''ảyya'' "blue; green".
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|ảo}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green".


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|phrase={{ash|nayya bahba go}}
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog=CLF.TOP
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
Some are expressed through regular stative verbs like ''oada''.
{{gloss
|phrase=oada bahba go
|IPA=[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a white dog
}}
}}


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