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frequentative -> intensive, FREQ -> INTS
m (OBS > EXP)
m (frequentative -> intensive, FREQ -> INTS)
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|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ảhga''
|nativename = {{ash|ảhga}}
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqə]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqə]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa]]
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ảhga'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ảhba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' ({{ash|ảhga}}, lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] ({{ash|ảhba}}). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
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|-
|-
! Plosive
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p~β t~ð k~ɣ/}}
| {{IPA|/p t k/}}
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ~ɬ t͡s~s/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ t͡s/}}
|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/m~˜ n~˜ ŋ~˜/}}
| {{IPA|/mᵇ nᵈ ŋᵍ/}}
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| {{ash|a}}
| ı
| {{ash|ı}}
| e
| {{ash|e}}
| y
| {{ash|y}}
| o
| {{ash|o}}
| w
| {{ash|w}}
| b
| {{ash|b}}
| d
| {{ash|d}}
| g
| {{ash|g}}
| l
| {{ash|l}}
| s
| {{ash|s}}
| h
| {{ash|h}}
| m
| {{ash|m}}
| n
| {{ash|n}}
| ŋ
| {{ash|ŋ}}
|}
|}


Tilde (e.g. '''ã''') is used to mark nasalisation. Hook above (e.g. '''ả''') denotes a word-initial glottal.
Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal.


An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//iʔ.Vʔˈu.wi//}}
| {{IPA|//ih.Vhˈu.wi//}}
| → {{IPA|/ʔiʔˈwu.wi/}}
| → {{IPA|/hihˈwu.wi/}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → ''ẻhhoe'' "hungry"
| → {{ash|ẻhhoe}} "hungry"
|}
|}


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! {{IPA|/-w/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
! {{IPA|//Nᴾ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
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! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
! {{IPA|//-Nᴾ//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
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====Stems====
====Stems====


Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) realis, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as {{ash|oa}} "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Inchoative
! Inchoative
! Terminative
! Terminative
! Intensive
|-
|-
! Indicative
! Realis
| '''''oa'''''
| {{ash|'''oa'''}}
| ''oahda''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑː]}}
| ''oadna''
| {{ash|oahda}}
| ''oasda''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑħ.t̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oadna}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ə]}}
| {{ash|oasda}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑs̺.t̺ə]}}
| {{ash|oadsa}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.t̺͡s̺ə]}}
|-
|-
! Optative
! Irrealis
| ''oae''
| {{ash|oae}}
| ''oadse''
{{IPA|[ˈwʌ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| ''oadne''
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
| ''oasde''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| {{ash|oadne}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
| {{ash|oasde}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| {{ash|''oadse''}}
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯͡ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
|}
|}


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====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====


Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-y-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs). These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative {{ash|-y-}} or the intensive {{ash|-(d)s-}}, which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs). These are some of the words derived from {{ash|oo}} "consume":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Basic
! Causative
! Causative
! Frequentative
! Intensive
|-
|-
| '''''oo'''''
| {{ash|'''oo'''}}
| ''oyya''
| {{ash|oyya}}
| ''odsa''
| {{ash|odsa}}
|}
|}


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of {{ash|mo͠o}} "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ımmõõ''
| {{ash|ĩbmo͠o}}
| ''emmõõ''
| {{ash|ẽbmo͠o}}
| ''ommõõ''
| {{ash|õbmo͠o}}
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-la'', ''-da''
| {{ash|-la}}, {{ash|-da}}
| ''-s''
| {{ash|-s}}
| ''ınsooda'' "where they live; by the house; at home"
| {{ash|ınsooda}} "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-ga'', ''-ya''
| {{ash|-ga}}, {{ash|-ya}}
| ''-h''
| {{ash|-h}}
| ''oadnah'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
| {{ash|oadnah}} "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-ba'', ''-wa''
| {{ash|-ba}}, {{ash|-wa}}
| ''-o''
| {{ash|-o}}
| ''eahba'' "in order to see"
| {{ash|eahba}} "in order to see"
|-
|-
! Semblative
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| {{ash|-ya}}
| ''-e''
| {{ash|-e}}
| ''ảyya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
| {{ash|ảyya}} "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Proximal
! Proximal
| ''e-''
| {{ash|e-}}
|-
|-
! Distal
! Distal
| ''o-''
| {{ash|o-}}
|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa''. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ả-'' becomes ''ẻ-''.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals {{ash|ea}} and {{ash|oa}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. {{ash|*e-ả-}} becomes {{ash|ẻ-}}.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
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In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.
In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.


Conjunct is marked by the suffix ''-s'' and disjunct is unmarked.
Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.


====Simple intransitives====
====Simple intransitives====
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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u>''<br />"I am warm"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u>}}<br />"I am warm"
| -
| -
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you warm?"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> no}}<br />"are you warm?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) emea''<br />"you are warm"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea}}<br />"you are warm"
| ''(oa go) emea''<br />"they are warm"
| {{ash|(oa go) emea}}<br />"they are warm"
| ''(ea go) emea no''<br />"am I warm?"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea no}}<br />"am I warm?"
| ''(oa go) emea no''<br />"are they warm?"
| {{ash|(oa go) emea no}}<br />"are they warm?"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"you look at me"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at them"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"they look at me"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"you look at them"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they look at you"
| {{ash|(ea go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻhhea yo}}<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| {{ash|(oa go) ẻssea yo}}<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said I am warm"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I said I am warm"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said you are warm"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa yo}}<br />"you said you are warm"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said you are warm"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo}}<br />"I said you are warm"
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said I am warm"
| {{ash|(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa yo}}<br />"you said I am warm"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas yo
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ảo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=TOP:CRESC Ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF.TOP Ao PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>hw</u>ea ga
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ẻhweas yo
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ẻsseas e
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=EXP
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.RLS-CONJ=EXP
|translation=they are looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnah ảyısããs yo
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnah ảo ga ảyısãã ma
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND=NEG
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP shine.INCH.RLS-DUR REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS=NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
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|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảhbadsas yo
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ẻwıbadsas yo
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=DECL
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo ga bahba meh<u>da</u> odsoyya ga
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba meh<u>da</u> odsoyya ga}}
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.RLS=REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahba go ảhwea yo''<br />"dogs watch it"
| {{ash|bahba go ảhhea yo}}<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahba go ảssea yo''<br />"dogs are watched"
| {{ash|bahba go ảssea yo}}<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã da ảhwea yo''<br />"water is watched"
| {{ash|sa͠a sa ảhhea yo}}<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã da ảssea yo''<br />(ungrammatical)
| {{ash|*sa͠a sa ảssea yo}}<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ảo ga <u>bahba</u> ỏhwea e''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|ảo ga <u>bahba</u> ỏhhea e}}<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea e''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea e}}<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''ảo ga <u>sãã</u> ỏhwoo e''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| {{ash|ảo ga <u>sa͠a</u> ỏhyoo e}}<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã da</u> ảo ỏhwoo e''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> ảo ỏhyoo e}}<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseaŋas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseaŋas yo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.RLS-DUR dog=CLF.TOP DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.RLS]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.RLS-DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.RLS-CONJ=DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=osya bahba go ẻsseaŋas no
|phrase={{ash|osya bahba go ẻsseaŋas no}}
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=light-SEMB gloss=dog=CLF.TOP shine.STAT.RLS PROX-INV-see.INCH.RLS-CONJ=Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}
}}
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! Desiderative
! Desiderative
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa}}<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadse sa''<br />"hopefully weaving"
| {{ash|ebadse sa}}<br />"hopefully weaving"
|}
|}


====Evidentiality====
====Evidentiality====


Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for direct experience and ''ga'' for hearsay.
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as {{ash|e}} for direct experience and {{ash|ga}} for hearsay.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 586: Line 599:
! Reportative
! Reportative
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}
|}


==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers.
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as classifiers and topic markers.


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:
Line 598: Line 611:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Locative
! Topic
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| {{ash|laa}}
| ''la'', ''da''
| {{ash|la}}, {{ash|da}}, {{ash|na}}
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| {{ash|goo}}
| ''go'', ''ŋo''
| {{ash|go}}, {{ash|ŋo}}
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| {{ash|sa͠a}}
| ''sa''
| {{ash|sa}}
| :LIQ
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| {{ash|see}}
| ''se''
| {{ash|se}}
| :AER
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boa''
| {{ash|boa}}
| ''bo''
| {{ash|bo}}, {{ash|mo}}
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| {{ash|doo}}
| ''do''
| {{ash|do}}, {{ash|no}}
| :PART
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mea''
| {{ash|mea}}
| ''me''
| {{ash|me}}
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
|-
| ''baa''
| {{ash|baa}}
| ''ba''
| {{ash|ba}}, {{ash|ma}}
| :MAN
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
There are also some classifiers without corresponding verbs:
{| class="wikitable"
! Classifier
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| {{ash|ya}}, {{ash|wa}}, {{ash|nya}}
| :GEM
| Used mainly of pairs (e.g. eyes, hands) but does not denote dual number
|-
| {{ash|na}}
| :COLL
| Used mainly of collectives (e.g. people) and higher animates but does not denote plural number
|}
|}


Line 650: Line 679:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ımmõõ da
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
}}
Line 666: Line 695:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ảo ẻhbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=CLF.TOP ao PROX-DIR-hand.INTS.RLS-CONJ=DECL
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 676: Line 705:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo ga bahba go onda egoa e
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga bahba go onda egoa e}}
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.IND=EXP
|gloss=ao=CLF.TOP dog=CLF.TOP DIST-LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.RLS=EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
Line 688: Line 717:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo sas sãã
|phrase={{ash|ảo sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.RLS
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ảo sas laa
|phrase={{ash|ảo sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=sea=CLF-LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.RLS
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}
Line 703: Line 732:
===Possession===
===Possession===


Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-l'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.
The fossilised set of nouns that can take the possessive prefix {{ash|n-}} can follow directly after a classified possessor.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC POSS-foot=CLF.TOP
|translation=Ao's foot
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC POSS-head=CLF.TOP
|translation=Ao's head
}}
 
|}
 
Otherwise the locative converbialiser {{ash|-s}} serves to mark the possessor of a possessum.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo gas osee go
|phrase={{ash|ảo gas osee go}}
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS-CVB:LOC breath=TOP:ORAL
|gloss=ao=CLF-LOC breath=CLF.TOP
|translation=Ao's breath (lit. "breath at Ao")
|translation=Ao's breath (lit. "breath at Ao")
}}
}}
Line 715: Line 762:
===Modality===
===Modality===


Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as optatives, potentials and interrogatives.
Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as irrealis forms, potentials and interrogatives.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ẻhhodses
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhodses}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ẻhhodses no
|phrase={{ash|ẻhhodses no}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ=Q
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR-CONJ=Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go ẻhhodse no
|phrase={{ash|bahba go ẻhhodse no}}
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT=Q
|gloss=dog=CLF.TOP PROX-DIR-consume.INTS.ACT.IRR=Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}
Line 741: Line 788:
===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mea'' "fire" → ''nayya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ảo'' "sea" → ''ảyya'' "blue; green".
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|ảo}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green".


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=nayya bahba go
|phrase={{ash|nayya bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog=CLF.TOP
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
}}
Prinsessa
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