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Behru Cesik (Meaning Behru way of speaking) is the highest language of the Behru empire. The stage of the language represented in this article is that spoken when the empire conquered the Yamazi dynasty of Winanda and began imposing its culture over a wide area.
[[File:Behruname.jpg|thumb|Béhru cesik shúune viine yoone hok.]]
 
 
 
 
 
==Setting==
Behru cesik (a combination of Behru, an ethnonym, and cesik, meaning "way of speaking"), is the official language of the 7 billion denizens of the Behru empire, which expands across the Behru and Maidn river valleys (exluding the maritime regions ravaged by the sea of endless storms) and the fertile plains atop the plateau of the Jisok outcropping. The language represented in this article is that of the empire 4000 years after its founding, when Behru Cesik was first widely standardized.
 
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Phonemes===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
All Behru consonants except /h/ have voiced and voiceless counterparts. Voiceless consonants are usually weakly aspirated, the voiceless sonorants strongly so. Voiceless consonants are listed after their voiced counterparts in the table. Romanization is listed in '''Bold '''below the ipa. Romanization will be used in all sections of the article other than the phonology section.
! style="width: 68px; "|
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
|+Consonants
! style="width: 68px; " |Dental
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Uvular
! style="width: 68px; " |Pharyngeal
|-
|-
! style="" |Nasal
! scope="row"|
|m hm
! scope="col"|Labial
|n hn
! scope="col"|Alveolar
|
! scope="col"|Post alveolar
|
! scope="col"|Palato-alveolar
|ñ hñ
! scope="col"|Palatal
|ng hng
! scope="col"|Velar
|
! scope="col"|Glottal
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Plosive
! scope="row"|Plosive
|p b
|t d
|
|
p b
'''p b'''
|
|
|c j
t d
|k g
 
'''t d'''
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Fricative
|f v
|s z
|
|
|
|
|sh zh
g k
|x gh
 
|
'''g k'''
|
|
h
'''h'''
|-
|-
! style="" |Affricate
! scope="row"|Affricate
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tɕ dʑ
'''c  j'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Approximant
! scope="row"|Fricative
|w hw
|
|
|
|hy
|
|h
|
|-
! style="" |Trill
|
|
|
ɸ β
'''f v'''
|
|
s z
'''s z'''
|
|
|
|
ɕ  ʑ
'''sh zh'''
|
|
|
|
x ɣ
'''x gh'''
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Flap or tap
! scope="row"|Nasal
|
|
|
m m̥ʰ
'''m hm'''
|
|
n n̥ʰ
'''n hn'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
ɲ  ɲ̥ʰ
'''ñ hñ'''
|
|
ŋ    ŋ̥ʰ
'''ng hng'''
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Lateral fric.
! scope="row"|Aproximant
|
|
|
w w̥ʰ
'''w hw'''
|
|
l l̥ʰ
'''l hl'''
|
|
r r̥ʰ
'''r hr'''
|
|
|
|
j j̥ʰ
'''y hy'''
|
|
|
|
|}
Behru has 4 base vowels, a, ɛ, u, and o, whose qualities change based on length and stress. Each vowel has 3 forms, long, short, and reduced. The vowel centralizes when it reduces, a and o reduce to ə̆, u reduces to ʊ, ɛ reduces to  ɪ̆. The vowel ɛ uniquely changes to i: when lengthened. As before, romanized forms are marked in the chart. In addition, vowels may carry a high tone or a low tone, a high tone is marked with an acute, e.g., á, í, úu, óo. Low tone is unmarked. Reduced vowels are always low tone, even if derived from an originally high toned vowel.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Vowels
|-
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
! scope="row"|
|
! scope="col"|Front
|
! scope="col"|Front-mid
|l lh
! scope="col"|Mid
|r hr
! scope="col"|Mid-back
|
! scope="col"|Back
|
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Lateral flap
! scope="row"|Close
|
|
i:
'''ii '''
|
|
ɪ̆
'''i'''
|
|
|
|
ʊ̆
'''ü'''
|
|
|
u u:
|
|
|}


===Vowels===
'''uu u'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-front
! style="width: 90px; " |Central
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-back
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! scope="row"|Mid
|i
|
|
ɛ
'''e'''
|
|
|
|
|u
ə̆
|-
 
! style="" |Near-close
'''ë'''
|e
|î
|
|
|ü
|
|
o o:
'''oo o'''
|-
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
! scope="row"|Open
|
|
|
a: a
|
 
|
'''aa a'''
|
|-
! style="" |Mid
|
|
|ë
|
|o
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Near-open
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Open
|a
|
|
|
|
Line 185: Line 171:
|}
|}


<!--Write about the alphabet (consonants and vowels) and explain the orthography along with the phonotactics of the language, it is suggested to do this before anything.  Use the International Phonetic Alphabet to name sounds in your language. If you are unsure on the use of the IPA you could visit : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet and read up, it helps quite a lot. -->


==Phonotactics==
===Phonotactical restraints and Sandhi===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that work and are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is a consonant cluster in English. -->
'''Rule 1 '''


All Behru free morphemes of native origin consist of a 2 syllable root with a maximum structure stop-fricative-approximant-vowel/syllabic l or r-consonant-vowel. Bound morphemes are permitted to have a reduced structure, so long as they start witha consonant should they be allowed to occur word initially. All syllables must start with a consonant. Alll free roots except particles and nouns in the agent case singular have a suffix of some sort indicating their grammatical role in the sentence.
All''' '''syllables start with 1 to 4 consonants and contain only 1 vowel, no more, no less.
===Vowels===


All roots that can exist unbound, along with several bound roots, hold a tone. This tone may be either a high ´tone like in lé, or a low tone le (low tone is unmarked). A high tone is only found in noun, verb, and particle roots, it is never found on the suffixes with the exception of several toneshift sandhi rules. In addition, a vowel may be of one of 3 "strengths". A weak vowel is reduced and centralized, and may carry have a high tone. A medium vowel is clearly pronounced but clipped in length. A strong vowel is held out in length. Some roots contain the sequence CV l/r C(V). The combination of a vowel and and l and r usually fuse in an unusual way.
j̥ʰa, mút, cen, xoo, ɲɛ are all permitted.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
 
|+Vowel strength
ɛt, u and itɕ are not permitted due to not having an initial consonant.
 
sɛun, lai, and ɣə̆if are not permitted due to having 2 vowels.
 
tpt, xn, mj̥ʰ are not permitted due to having no vowels.
 
''*exception: kl̥t and zrn are permitted because /l/ and /r/ may optionally function as reduced vowels.
 
'''Rule 2 '''
 
All consonants in a consonant cluster must agree in voicing if they do not, the voicing of the first consonant of the second syllable controls the voicing.
kx, tɸ, n̥ts, bw, dɣy and m̥y̥ʰ are all permitted due to all members of the cluster agreeing in voice.
sʊ̆ɸk+zwáan must be changed to sʊ̆βgzwáan because they do not agree in voicing. As z is the first consonant of the second syllable and is voiced, it changes all unvoiced consonants in the cluster to voiced, changing k to g and ɸ to β
l̥ʰən+ksɛ must become l̥ʰən̥ksɛ, because k, the first consonant of the second syllable, is unvoiced, changing the voiced n to voiceless n̥.
 
'''Rule 3'''
 
Syllable initial consonant clusters are permitted, they may consist at most
 
Stop + Fricative + Liquid (/l/ or /r/) + /w/ or /j/, or
 
Nasal+ /w/ or /j/ in that order.
 
kfr̥j̥ is permitted as it contains a stop fricative, liquid, and  /j/ in the right order, and all consonants agree in voicing, as specified in rule two.
kn̥ and ŋr are not permitted as nasals may not coexist with stops, fricatives, or liquids in consonant clusters.
skj̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede stops,
sɲ̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede nasals.
mj is permitted as /j/ may come after a nasal.
zlw is permitted as all constituents are in the right order, fricative>liquid> /w/ or /y/
wzl and lzw are not, however, they are not in the right order.
βj is permitted, the contituents are in the right order and of the right type.
'''
Rule 4'''
any alveolar consonant followed by /j/ is transformed to its palatal counterpart.
tj̥ and dj become tɕ and dʑ respectively.
sj̥ and zj become ɕ and ʑ respectively
nj and n̥j̥ʰ become ɲ and ɲ̥ʰ respectively.
 
'''Rule 5 '''
The combinations /ji:/ and /jɪ/ are always converted to /ʑi:/ and /ʑɪ/ respectively. In the same manner, /wʊ/ and /wu:/ are always converted to /βʊ/ and /βu:/ respectively. This rule overides rule 3, the syllable /zlji:/ will be converted to /zlʑi:/ even though /zlʑ/ is otherwise forbidden at the beginning of a syllable due to having a fricative after a liquid. The /β/ and /ʑ/ will be converted into /ɸ/ and /ɕ/ if it would violated rule 2, /pl̥w̥ʰʊ/ would be converted to /pl̥ɸʊ/, not /pl̥βʊ/, /kj̥i:/ to /kɕi:/, not /kʑi:/.
'''
Rule 6'''
The only consonants that may occur syllable finally are t/d, p/b/, ɸ/β, k/g, n/n̥, m/m̥, ɲ/ɲ̥, ŋ/ŋ̥, and ɕ/ʑ. Voicing is not distinguished in the final position. Final stops and fricatives may have nasals preceding them , and ɕ/ʑ and ɸ/βmay precede any one of the others(but not eachother). Two nasals may not occur in a row in these syllables.
raβn is a permitted syllable, but raβʑ is not. ramβ is  permitted. l̥̥ʰʊm̥k is permitted, l̥ʰumn is not. kaβʑ and kaʑβ are not permitted, ʑ and β may not be together at the end of a syllable.
'''Rule 7'''
A sequence of vowels is always interrupted by glides and or  has the first vowel deleted to avoid violating rule 1. The change  depends on the first vowel, ɛ, ɪ, and ii insert /j/ in a sequence of vowels. /ɪ/ is deleted when /j/ is inserted. uu, u, o, and ʊ insert /w/ in a sequence of vowels. /u/ and /ʊ/ are deleted when /w/ is inserted.
kaɛ would become kɛ
kau would become ku
kɛɛ would become kɛjɛ
kɪo: would become kjo:
ki:o would become ki:jo
ku:a would become ku:wa
kua and kʊa would both become kwa
kɛi: would become kɛji:, which would then become kɛʑi: due to rule 5
kʊu and kuu would both become kwu, which would then become kβu due to rule 5, and then kɸu due to rule 1.
sɪɪ would become sjɪ due to rule 5, which would then become ɕi due to rule 4.
==Nouns==
Behru nouns delcine for 12 cases and 3 numbers. The 12 cases can be grouped into the simple cases, Nominative, Causative, Ablative, Benefactive, Posessive, Instrumental, Adessive, Locative, and Dative, and the complex cases, Accusative, Genitive, and Comparative. The complex cases use a different stem than simple cases.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Declension of Vowel deleting nouns
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Weak
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|ë
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|ë
múki, ''dog-like animal''
! scope="col"|i
 
! scope="col"|ü
(i-type )
! scope="col"|l
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|r
ratu, ''wind''
 
(u-type )
! scope="col"|
ksopa, ''shelf''
 
(a-type)
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|múkësh
|ratët
|ksopët
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|múkye
|ratúsh
|ksopé
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|múking
|ratung
|ksopang
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|múkimpi (múki-kimpi)
|ratwimpi
|ksopempi
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Strong
! scope="row"|Posessive
! scope="col"|a
|múkihno (múki-kihno)
! scope="col"|o
|ratwihno
! scope="col"|e
|ksopehno
! scope="col"|u
! scope="col"|ol, el*
! scope="col"|ar, er*
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Prolonged
! scope="row"|Adessive
! scope="col"|aa
|múkicra (múki-kicra)
! scope="col"|oo
|ratwicra
! scope="col"|ii
|ksopecra
! scope="col"|uu
! scope="col"|ul, il*
! scope="col"|or, ir*
|}
* roots containing l or r may strengthen according to two different series.
 
===Sandhi===
Sandhi in behru can be divided into two categories, tone sandhi and consonant sandhi. Vowel sandhi only occurs word internally, as all morphemes that can occur at the front of a word start with consonants.
====Consonant sandhi====
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 1: first consonant agrees with second consonant in voice if both are stops or fricatives
|-
|-
! scope="col"|k,x,c,sh,t,s,p,f
! scope="row"|Instrumental
! scope="col"|when followed by g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v
|múkl
! scope="col"|become g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v
|rato
|}
|ksopo
n assimilates in the point of articulation of the following consonants
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
! scope="col"|n
! scope="col"|when followed by k,g,x,gh ng
! scope="col"|becomes ng
|-
|-
! scope="col"|n
! scope="row"|Locative
! scope="col"|when followed by c,j,sh,zh,ñ
|múxi (múk-hi)
! scope="col"|becomes ñ
|raswi (rat-hwi)
|ksofi (ksop-hi)
|-
|-
! scope="col"|n
! scope="row"|Dative
! scope="col"|when followed by p,b,f,v,m
|múkci
! scope="col"|becomes m
|ratcwi
|}
|ksopci
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 3: palatalization of dental consonants
|-
|-
! scope="col"|t,d,s,z
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
! scope="col"|when followed by y
|múkíi-
! scope="col"|combine with y to become c,j,sh,zh
|raswíi-
|ksopégii-
|}
|}






{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 4: y and w dissimilate before matching vowels
|+Declension of vowel holding nouns
|-
|-
! scope="col"|y
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|when followed by i
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|becomes zh
myéngu ''water''
 
(u-type)
! scope="col"|bghoze ''bucket''
! scope="col"|nadno ''berry''
! scope="col"|rwidli ''people, tribe''
! scope="col"|hnáza ''platform, step''
|-
|-
! scope="col"|w
! scope="row"|Nominative
! scope="col"|when followed by u
|myénguzu
! scope="col"|becomes v
|bghozezu
|}
|nadnozu
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|rwidlizu
|+Rule 5: combining palatal and dental sounds
|hnázazu
|-
|-
! scope="col"|s,sh,t
! scope="row"|Causative
! scope="col"|when followed by sh
|myéngóye
! scope="col"|combines with sh to become c
|bghozéjje
|nadnóye
|rwidlíish
|hnázáash
|-
|-
! scope="col"|z,zh,d
! scope="row"|Ablative
! scope="col"|when followed by zh
|myéngweng
! scope="col"|combines with zh to become j
|bghozeng
|}
|nadnweng
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|rwidleng
|+Rule 6: h weakens unvoiced stops
|hnázang
|-
|-
! scope="col"|k,c,t,p
! scope="row"|Benefactive
! scope="col"|when followed by h (only if h is in isolation)
|myéngwimpi
! scope="col"|combine with h to become x,sh,s,f
|bghozempi
|}
|nadnokimpi
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|rwidlikimpi
|+rule 7: h aspirates liquid and nasal consonants
|hnázempi
|-
|-
! scope="col"|y,r,l,w,ng,ñ,n,m
! scope="row"|Posessive
! scope="col"|when followed by h
|myéngwihno
! scope="col"|become hy,hr,hl,hw,hng,hñ,hn,hm
|bghozehno
|}
|nadnokihno
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|rwidlikihno
|+Rule 8: aspirated liquids and nasals devoice preceding stops and fricatives
|hnázehno
|-
|-
! scope="col"|g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|when followed by h (only if h is in isolation)
Adessive
! scope="col"|
|myéngwicra
become p,x,c,sh,t,s,p,f, and the h disappears
|bghozecra
|}
|nadnokicra
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|rwidlikicra
|+Rule 9: w and y become v and zh when not followed by vowels, and vice versa
|hnázecra
|-
|-
! scope="col"|w and y
! scope="row"|Instrumental
! scope="col"|
|myéngo
when followed by another consonant
|bghozho (bghoz-yo)
 
|nadno
and preceded by a consonant
|rwidlyl
! scope="col"|become u and i
|hnáza
|}
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 10: Progressive devoicing
|-
|-
! scope="col"|k, p, t, c, s, sh, f, x
! scope="row"|Locative
! scope="col"|When in contact with any liquid nasal
|myéngwíik
! scope="col"|Devoice said liquid or nasal, eg; k+n = khn, m+t=hmt
|bghozíik
|}
|nadnóok
*note: The effects of rule 10 are never written, as they can always be determined, samt will always be pronounced as |sahmt|, no rules can reverse this.
|rwidllíik
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|hnazíik
|+Rule 11: regressive devoicing
|-
|-
! scope="col"|g, b, d
! scope="row"|Dative
! scope="col"|When followed by an aspirant liquid or nasal directly, or if followed seperated from the aspirant by a short vowel
|myénguci
! scope="col"|become k, p, t, eg; g+hy=ky, bu+hm+ puhm, but daa+ hn doesn't equal taahn, because of the long vowel
|bghozeci
|}
|nadnoci
 
|rwidlici
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|hnázaci
|+Rule 12: intervocalic voicing
|-
|-
! scope="col"|k, t, p, even if preceded by a nasal or fricative
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
! scope="col"|Voice between two vowels. If a second consonant lies before, this consonant is also voiced. However, if a consonant lies after, this rule does not aplly
|myéngugíi
! scope="col"|aka becomes aga, efto becomes evdo, ampi becomes ambi, but akya deos not become agya
|bghozíi
|nadnwíi
|rwidlíi
|hnázegíi
|}
|}




Notes: the only rules which can change the voicing of c and j are rules 2 and 7.


Only the rules 1, 2, 6, 7, and 8 occur across word boundaries. Final consonants affected by rules 6 and 7 across word boundaries double. The h doesn't dissapear of rule 8 occurs across word boundaries.


====Vowel Sandhi====
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="margin: 0px auto;"
 
|+Declension of sonorant nouns.
 
|-
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
! scope="row"|
|+Rule 1: vowels have consonants inserted after or become consonants themselves when followed by other vowels
! scope="col"|tsan ''support''
! scope="col"|húm ''fluid''
! scope="col"|byéng ''metal''
! scope="col"|südzlar ''elbow''
! scope="col"|kwél  ''cloud''
|-
! scope="row"|Nominative
|tsaan
|húum
|bzhíing
|südzlaar
|kwíil
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|tsañje
|húhmye
|byén'gye
|südzlarje
|kwélje
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|tsanding
|húmbing
|byén'ging
|südlarjing
|kwélzing
|-
|-
! scope="col"|o,u
! scope="row"|Benefactive
! scope="col"|when followed by e,i,a,o
|tsaanpi
! scope="col"|become ow,w
|húmpi
|bzhíingpi
|südzlarpi
|kwíilpi
|-
|-
! scope="col"|o,u
! scope="row"|Posessive
! scope="col"|when followed by u,ü
|tsaahnno
! scope="col"|become ov,v
|húuhmno
|bzhíihngno
|südzlahrno
|kwíihlno
|-
|-
! scope="col"|e,i
! scope="row"|Adessive
! scope="col"|when followed by a,o,u,ü,e
|tsaancra
! scope="col"|become ey,y
|húumcra
|bzhíingcra
|südzlarcra
|kwíilcra
|-
|-
! scope="col"|e,i
! scope="row"|Instrumental
! scope="col"|when followed by i
|tsaahnu
! scope="col"|become ezh,zh
|húuhmu
|bzhíihngu
|südzlaarzho
|kwíiyo
|-
|-
! scope="col"|a
! scope="row"|Locative
! scope="col"|when followed by any vowel
|tsanti
! scope="col"|dissapears
|húmpi
|byéngki
|südzlarshi
|kwélsi
|-
|-
! scope="col"|aa
! scope="row"|Dative
! scope="col"|when followed by any vowel
|tsaanci
! scope="col"|becomes aah
|húumci
|}
|bzhíingci
 
|südzlaarci
====Tone Sandhi====
|kwíilci
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
! scope="col"|
If a vowel with a tone is weakened
 
múk to mügii
! scope="col"|
The tone is shifted to the following syllable
 
mügíi
|-
|-
! scope="col"|
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
If a vowel with a tone is converted into a consonant
|tsansíi
 
|húmvíi
like hí+e hye
|byéngxíi
! scope="col"|The tone is shifted to the following syllable hyé
|südzlarzhíi
|kwélzíi
|}
|}


==Orthography==
Behru romanized orthography matches the symbols given in the phonology section. Sandhi is indicated always in both written systems. The Behru native writing system is an alphabet, with symbols for vowels, consonants, vowel strength and tone arranged into syllabic blocks, written up to down, left to right. Pictures of these will be uploaded later.




Greatbuddha
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