Behru cesik: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Behruname.jpg|thumb|Béhru cesik shúune viine yoone hok.]]
[[File:Behruname.jpg|thumb|Béhru cesik shúune viine yoone hok.]]




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The four stems of the root cet, meaning to speak, are: cet, crwiit, cidaa, and cocash(y).
The four stems of the root cet, meaning to speak, are: cet, crwiit, cidaa, and cocash(y).


==='''The basic stem and independant conjugation.'''===
===The basic stem and independent conjugation.===
The basic stem has the Independant personal agreement endings added to it, for example, the basic stem of cet, is well, cet, and the conjugated forms are: cedúu: I speak, cedabi: we(ex.) speak, cedaji: we(inc.) speak, cedaak: you (singular) speak, cedaak: you(paucal) speak, cedage: you(plural) speak, etc. However, these endings are not added onto the stem directly, some sound changes must be done first, according to the rules listed below.
The basic stem has the Independant personal agreement endings added to it, for example, the basic stem of cet, is well, cet, and the conjugated forms are: cedúu: I speak, cedabi: we(ex.) speak, cedaji: we(inc.) speak, cedaak: you (singular) speak, cedaak: you(paucal) speak, cedage: you(plural) speak, etc. However, these endings are not added onto the stem directly, some sound changes must be done first, according to the rules listed below.
===='''Ivc Rule 1'''====
====Ivc Rule 1====
The fully conjugated form of the verb must have two syllables after the verb stem.
The fully conjugated form of the verb must have two syllables after the verb stem.


''(verb-stem final vowels are considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it)''
''(verb-stem final vowels are considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it)''
====='''Clause 1'''=====
=====Clause 1=====
If not, lengthen the first vowel after the verb stem
If not, lengthen the first vowel after the verb stem
If you want to say "I speak" (in an independant clause, of course, as we are studying the Independant forms of a verb), you take the basic stem of the verb to speak(cet, and add the 1st person subject ending (intransitive of course), ú, making cedú (not cetú, remember sandhi rule 12, it caused that t to change to a d.). However, that is not actually the correct form, due to Ivc(independant verb conjugation) rule 1: all ivc forms must have at least 3 syllables. Ivc rule one says "lengthen the second syllable", thus, lengthen the second syllable. So, lengthen the second syllable of "cedú" to "cedúu". If you want to say "you(singular) flee", you add "k" to the basic stem of to flee, "shúnda", forming "shúndak", and then apply rule 1, forming "shúndaak". Remember, the final "a" in "shúnda" is considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it, which is why it is lengthened by rule 1.
If you want to say "I speak" (in an independant clause, of course, as we are studying the Independant forms of a verb), you take the basic stem of the verb to speak(cet, and add the 1st person subject ending (intransitive of course), ú, making cedú (not cetú, remember sandhi rule 12, it caused that t to change to a d.). However, that is not actually the correct form, due to Ivc(independant verb conjugation) rule 1: all ivc forms must have at least 3 syllables. Ivc rule one says "lengthen the second syllable", thus, lengthen the second syllable. So, lengthen the second syllable of "cedú" to "cedúu". If you want to say "you(singular) flee", you add "k" to the basic stem of to flee, "shúnda", forming "shúndak", and then apply rule 1, forming "shúndaak". Remember, the final "a" in "shúnda" is considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it, which is why it is lengthened by rule 1.


However, ivc rule 1 isn't that simple. You might assume that in order to say we(ex.) speak, you would add cet and bi to make cedbi, and then apply rule 1 on the second syllable to make it cedbii(3 syllables). However the true form of we (ex.) speak is "cedabi", not "cedbii". You will learn why in ivc rule one clause 2
However, ivc rule 1 isn't that simple. You might assume that in order to say we(ex.) speak, you would add cet and bi to make cedbi, and then apply rule 1 on the second syllable to make it cedbii(3 syllables). However the true form of we (ex.) speak is "cedabi", not "cedbii". You will learn why in ivc rule one clause 2
====='''Clause 2'''=====
=====Clause 2=====
Do not lengthen the second syllable if it follows a consonant cluster created by the end of the verb stem and the beginnning of a personal ending. Instead, insert an epenthetic vowel appropriate to the verb stem between the stem and ending.
Do not lengthen the second syllable if it follows a consonant cluster created by the end of the verb stem and the beginnning of a personal ending. Instead, insert an epenthetic vowel appropriate to the verb stem between the stem and ending.
That was allot to take in, wasn't it? It will seem simpler with examples. For examples, the form "cedbi" would have ivc 1 clause 2 applied to it because a: it is only 2 syllables long (ced+bi), and, the cluster "db was created by the t(changed to a d) at the end of the verb stem "cet" + the b at the beginning of the personal ending "bi". Thus, you'd add the epenthetic vowel appropriate to "cet" (a), between stem and ending, producing "cedabi" (cet+a+bi).
That was allot to take in, wasn't it? It will seem simpler with examples. For examples, the form "cedbi" would have ivc 1 clause 2 applied to it because a: it is only 2 syllables long (ced+bi), and, the cluster "db was created by the t(changed to a d) at the end of the verb stem "cet" + the b at the beginning of the personal ending "bi". Thus, you'd add the epenthetic vowel appropriate to "cet" (a), between stem and ending, producing "cedabi" (cet+a+bi).
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You can usually tell the epenthetic vowel by the final vowel of the weak stem form, for example, the weak stem of "cet" is "cida<u>a</u>", so the epenthetic vowel is "a". However, this does not always work, for example, "we swim" would be "vábebi", even though the weak stem of váp is "vábii", suggesting that "we swim" would instead be "vábibi". These irregularities just have to be learned by rote. However, we are still not done with ivc rule 1.
You can usually tell the epenthetic vowel by the final vowel of the weak stem form, for example, the weak stem of "cet" is "cida<u>a</u>", so the epenthetic vowel is "a". However, this does not always work, for example, "we swim" would be "vábebi", even though the weak stem of váp is "vábii", suggesting that "we swim" would instead be "vábibi". These irregularities just have to be learned by rote. However, we are still not done with ivc rule 1.
====='''Clause 3'''=====
=====Clause 3=====
If, after the application of Clause 2, the verb ending is still not 2 syllables long, lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by Clause 2.
If, after the application of Clause 2, the verb ending is still not 2 syllables long, lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by Clause 2.
This rule would apply in cases like when you want to say "you(singular) speak". You add the ending "k" to "cet", forming "cetk". you then apply clause two to "cetk", forming "cetak". However, there is still only one syllable after the stem even after the applucation of clause two. Clause three says to lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by clause two, thus "cetak" becomes "cedaak". "kómtk" (you float) becomes "kómtak" beomces "kómtaak", "vápk" (you swim)becomes "vápek", becomes "vábiik", etc. (the e in vabek lengthens to "ii", not "ee", this alway happens, as there is no "ee" sound in Behru).
This rule would apply in cases like when you want to say "you(singular) speak". You add the ending "k" to "cet", forming "cetk". you then apply clause two to "cetk", forming "cetak". However, there is still only one syllable after the stem even after the applucation of clause two. Clause three says to lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by clause two, thus "cetak" becomes "cedaak". "kómtk" (you float) becomes "kómtak" beomces "kómtaak", "vápk" (you swim)becomes "vápek", becomes "vábiik", etc. (the e in vabek lengthens to "ii", not "ee", this alway happens, as there is no "ee" sound in Behru).


===='''Ivc rule 2 '''====
====Ivc rule 2====
Disyllabic endings become monosyllabic after verb stems ending in a vowel.
Disyllabic endings become monosyllabic after verb stems ending in a vowel.
This rule is in much the same vein as ivc rule 1, it keeps the verb ending at two syllables, as the final vowel in the verb stem takes up a syllable, forcing the ending to give up a syllable in its place. For example, "they go", is "zíihnloon" (zíin+hloon), however, "they flee", is "shúndahlon", "hloon" giving up a vowel to become "hlon" to accomodate the final a in "shúnda".
This rule is in much the same vein as ivc rule 1, it keeps the verb ending at two syllables, as the final vowel in the verb stem takes up a syllable, forcing the ending to give up a syllable in its place. For example, "they go", is "zíihnloon" (zíin+hloon), however, "they flee", is "shúndahlon", "hloon" giving up a vowel to become "hlon" to accomodate the final a in "shúnda".
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"you heal us", is "hnaaldasa"("hnaal+dasa), "you hit us", is "cábatsa", etc. The shortened verb endings are listed to the left of long endings in the polypersonal agreement endings chart.
"you heal us", is "hnaaldasa"("hnaal+dasa), "you hit us", is "cábatsa", etc. The shortened verb endings are listed to the left of long endings in the polypersonal agreement endings chart.
===='''Ivc rule 3'''====
====Ivc rule 3====
Ivc  rule 3 applies only to verb stems ending in liquids (n,m,ng,r, and l)., and overrides any other ivc rules of a lower number that could be applied.
Ivc  rule 3 applies only to verb stems ending in liquids (n,m,ng,r, and l)., and overrides any other ivc rules of a lower number that could be applied.


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For verbs edning in an "r", add "zh", "cíir-óxa"(he watches thou) becomes "cérzhóxa"
For verbs edning in an "r", add "zh", "cíir-óxa"(he watches thou) becomes "cérzhóxa"
===='''Ivc rule 4'''====
====Ivc rule 4====
Verb stems that would be affected by ivc rule 3 are unnafected by clauses 2 and 3 of ivc rule 1
Verb stems that would be affected by ivc rule 3 are unnafected by clauses 2 and 3 of ivc rule 1
====='''Clause 1'''=====
=====Clause 1=====
The first vowel of the verb ending is lengthened if the ending is not 2 syllables long If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r. Thus, "yuul-bi" (we walk), which has a one syllable ending, is changed to "yuulbii", "cíin-tó" (I see thee) is changed to "cíintóo".
The first vowel of the verb ending is lengthened if the ending is not 2 syllables long If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r. Thus, "yuul-bi" (we walk), which has a one syllable ending, is changed to "yuulbii", "cíin-tó" (I see thee) is changed to "cíintóo".
====='''Clause 2'''=====
=====Clause 2=====
If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r, the endings -k and -k are changed to -kaa and -kii.
If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r, the endings -k and -k are changed to -kaa and -kii.


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|-
|-
! scope="row"|2nd person
! scope="row"|2nd person
|k
|k(aa)
|k
|k(ii)
|k
|ke
|-
|-
! scope="row"|3rd person
! scope="row"|3rd person
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|-
|-
! scope="col"|zo
! scope="col"|zo
! scope="col"|inanimate object associated with the verb (often imparts an irregular meaning which must be learned independantly) cèdzo would mean "words, speech)
! scope="col"|inanimate object associated with the verb (often imparts an irregular meaning which must be learned independantly) cèdzo would mean "words, speech
|-
|-
! scope="col"|hen
! scope="col"|hen
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|-
|-
! scope="col"|hik
! scope="col"|hik
! scope="col"|means "a way of doing something, method". cèsik would mean "language"(way of speaking)
! scope="col"|means "a way of doing something, method". cesik would mean "language"(way of speaking)
|-
|-
! scope="col"|ya
! scope="col"|ya
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|-
|-
! scope="col"|co
! scope="col"|co
! scope="col"|indicates an event, such as in màcco "the event of peace"
! scope="col"|indicates an event, such as in macco "the event of peace"
|-
|-
! scope="col"|láng
! scope="col"|láng
! scope="col"|means the same thing as -ness in english, added to the descriptive stem of a verb, as in xùweláng "livelyness, health"
! scope="col"|means the same thing as -ness in english, added to the descriptive stem of a verb, as in xuweláng "livelyness, health"
|}
|}
====Talking about an entire sentence as a noun====
The so called "participial endings" turn an entire clause into a noun. They may be added to the basic, weak and special stems, imparting different meanings in each case. The special stem plus the participial ending describes the entire action as an event, gyáhenibwora (gyáhenibu: to injure past tense, plus -ora, the participial ending meaning the action was done by a singular third person to first person), means "the event of injuring  me". This noun could then be declined into the causative to form a complex sentence, for example "gyáhenibworaye zhánilzúu", "because he hit me I died". Using the basic stem adds a sense of uncertainity, "gyániboraye zhánilzúu" would mean "if he'd injured me I might have died. Use the weak stem describes the preformer of the action rather than the event itself, "gyënibáahora" means "the one who injured me".
===Noun incorporation===
A Behru verb may incorporate a noun, decreasing its transitivity by one. The noun is prefixed to the verb in its Weak form, and usually acts as the object of the verb.
hyép(transitive): to eat> bëlóohyép(intransitive): to eat bólo.
Some verbs must always incorporate nouns, some of these are attached to the strong stem of the noun, like -tsu.
(x)tsu: to make x> bólotsu(intransitive): to make bólo.
As intransitive verbs cannot lose any more transitivity, a noun incorporated into them instead expresses an instrumental relationship between the noun and verb, for example
zíin(intransitive): to go, jëlóozíin: to go by aircraft, milóozíin: to go by vehicle
kót: to fly, jëlóokót: to fly by aircraft.
Noun incorporation is preffered to using a transitive verb in sentences involving inanimate objects, particularily if the objects are indefinite, giving a subtle difference in meaning.
for example, "bëlóohyénibyúu" means "I ate bolo", however, "bëlóoha hyénipshii" would mean "I ate the bolo."


==The copulas==
==The copulas==
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General quantity suffixes -hok: every,all -mok: none -hot: some -huk: most -muk: few
General quantity suffixes -hok: every,all -mok: none -hot: some -huk: most -muk: few


Number modifying suffixes: -sát: around, aprroximately -kère: only, just
Number modifying suffixes: -sát: around, aprroximately -kere: only, just


==Honorifics==
==Honorifics==
''{{NUMBEROFVIEWS}}''
''{{NUMBEROFVIEWS}}''
[[Category:Behru cesik]][[Category:Lexica]]
[[Category:Behru cesik]][[Category:Lexica]]

Revision as of 02:07, 20 July 2013



Béhru cesik shúune viine yoone hok.



Setting

Behru cesik (a combination of Behru, an ethnonym, and cesik, meaning "way of speaking"), is the official language of the 7 billion denizens of the Behru empire, which expands across the Behru and Maidn river valleys (exluding the maritime regions ravaged by the sea of endless storms) and the fertile plains atop the plateau of the Jisok outcropping. The language represented in this article is that of the empire 4000 years after its founding, when Behru Cesik was first widely standardized.

Phonology

Consonants

Bilabial Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal
Nasal m hm n hn ñ hñ ng hng
Plosive p b t d c j k g
Fricative f v s z sh zh x gh
Affricate
Approximant w hw hy h
Trill
Flap or tap
Lateral fric.
Lateral app. l lh r hr
Lateral flap

Vowels

Front Near-front Central Near-back Back
Close i u
Near-close e î ü
Close-mid
Mid ë o
Open-mid
Near-open
Open a


Phonotactics

All Behru free morphemes of native origin consist of a 2 syllable root with a maximum structure stop-fricative-approximant-vowel/syllabic l or r-consonant-vowel. Bound morphemes are permitted to have a reduced structure, so long as they start witha consonant should they be allowed to occur word initially. All syllables must start with a consonant. Alll free roots except particles and nouns in the agent case singular have a suffix of some sort indicating their grammatical role in the sentence.

Vowels

All roots that can exist unbound, along with several bound roots, hold a tone. This tone may be either a high ´tone like in lé, or a low tone le (low tone is unmarked). A high tone is only found in noun, verb, and particle roots, it is never found on the suffixes with the exception of several toneshift sandhi rules. In addition, a vowel may be of one of 3 "strengths". A weak vowel is reduced and centralized, and may carry have a high tone. A medium vowel is clearly pronounced but clipped in length. A strong vowel is held out in length. Some roots contain the sequence CV l/r C(V). The combination of a vowel and and l and r usually fuse in an unusual way.

Vowel strength
Weak ë ë i ü l r
Strong a o e u ol, el* ar, er*
Prolonged aa oo ii uu ul, il* or, ir*
  • roots containing l or r may strengthen according to two different series.

Sandhi

Sandhi in behru can be divided into two categories, tone sandhi and consonant sandhi. Vowel sandhi only occurs word internally, as all morphemes that can occur at the front of a word start with consonants.

Consonant sandhi

Rule 1: first consonant agrees with second consonant in voice if both are stops or fricatives
k,x,c,sh,t,s,p,f when followed by g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v become g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v

n assimilates in the point of articulation of the following consonants

n when followed by k,g,x,gh ng becomes ng
n when followed by c,j,sh,zh,ñ becomes ñ
n when followed by p,b,f,v,m becomes m
Rule 3: palatalization of dental consonants
t,d,s,z when followed by y combine with y to become c,j,sh,zh


Rule 4: y and w dissimilate before matching vowels
y when followed by i becomes zh
w when followed by u becomes v
Rule 5: combining palatal and dental sounds
s,sh,t when followed by sh combines with sh to become c
z,zh,d when followed by zh combines with zh to become j
Rule 6: h weakens unvoiced stops
k,c,t,p when followed by h (only if h is in isolation) combine with h to become x,sh,s,f
rule 7: h aspirates liquid and nasal consonants
y,r,l,w,ng,ñ,n,m when followed by h become hy,hr,hl,hw,hng,hñ,hn,hm
Rule 8: aspirated liquids and nasals devoice preceding stops and fricatives
g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v when followed by h (only if h is in isolation)

become p,x,c,sh,t,s,p,f, and the h disappears

Rule 9: w and y become v and zh when not followed by vowels, and vice versa
w and y

when followed by another consonant

and preceded by a consonant

become u and i


Rule 10: Progressive devoicing
k, p, t, c, s, sh, f, x When in contact with any liquid nasal Devoice said liquid or nasal, eg; k+n = khn, m+t=hmt
  • note: The effects of rule 10 are never written, as they can always be determined, samt will always be pronounced as |sahmt|, no rules can reverse this.
Rule 11: regressive devoicing
g, b, d When followed by an aspirant liquid or nasal directly, or if followed seperated from the aspirant by a short vowel become k, p, t, eg; g+hy=ky, bu+hm+ puhm, but daa+ hn doesn't equal taahn, because of the long vowel
Rule 12: intervocalic voicing
k, t, p, even if preceded by a nasal or fricative Voice between two vowels. If a second consonant lies before, this consonant is also voiced. However, if a consonant lies after, this rule does not aplly aka becomes aga, efto becomes evdo, ampi becomes ambi, but akya deos not become agya


Notes: the only rules which can change the voicing of c and j are rules 2 and 7.

Only the rules 1, 2, 6, 7, and 8 occur across word boundaries. Final consonants affected by rules 6 and 7 across word boundaries double. The h doesn't dissapear of rule 8 occurs across word boundaries.

Vowel Sandhi

Rule 1: vowels have consonants inserted after or become consonants themselves when followed by other vowels
o,u when followed by e,i,a,o become ow,w
o,u when followed by u,ü become ov,v
e,i when followed by a,o,u,ü,e become ey,y
e,i when followed by i become ezh,zh
a when followed by any vowel dissapears
aa when followed by any vowel becomes aah

Tone Sandhi

If a vowel with a tone is weakened

múk to mügii

The tone is shifted to the following syllable

mügíi

If a vowel with a tone is converted into a consonant

like hí+e hye

The tone is shifted to the following syllable hyé

Orthography

Behru romanized orthography matches the symbols given in the phonology section. Sandhi is indicated always in both written systems. The Behru native writing system is an alphabet, with symbols for vowels, consonants, vowel strength and tone arranged into syllabic blocks, written up to down, left to right. Pictures of these will be uploaded later.

Basic Grammar

Gender Cases Numbers Tenses Persons Moods Voices Aspects
Verb No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
Nouns No Yes Yes No No No Yes No
Adjectives No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes No
Numbers No No No No No No No No
Participles No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes No
Adverb No No No No No No No No
Pronouns No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No
Adpositions No No No No No No No No
Article No No No No No No No No
Particle No No No No No No No No

Behru in the modern day is highly fusional, although the language of old, in the days of empire, was far more agglutinative. This older stage of the language is popular in literature, but this article primarily focuses on the Hedri colloquial. All root morphemes of the language can be split into 4 groups. All free morphemes are part of onne of 3 parts of speech, verb, noun, or particle. Adjectives and adverbs do not exist as a part of speech, they can exist as either prefixes or derived from verbs. The language is most commonly uses a subject object verb word order, but there are no strict rules on word order in most sentences. The language is exclusively head final, with all modifiers placed before the head. The verb always comes a finally when it is the head of a clause, and is the only portion of the sentence that may not be omitted under any circumstances.

Morphemes

Free
Bound
Semantemes Verbs, Nouns adjectival prefixes, adverbial prefixes, derivational sufixes
Grammemes Grammatical particles grammatical sufixes, positional sufixes, grammatical infixes

Noun Morphology

Principle parts of a Behru noun.

Simple consonant variation nouns

A behru noun has 3 principle parts, the default, weak, and plural forms. The plural form is used in the plural (obviously), and the weak form is used in the patient, genitive, possesive, comparative, and compound cases.

Principle Behru nouns ending in a voiceless stop
Default Weak Plural
Type 1 múk, let, ksac, lóp mügáa, lidaa, ksëcaa, lëbáa múuge, liide, ksaaje, lóobe
Type 2 lart, kélc, náp, cwenk lrdii, klcíi, nëbíi, cwin'gii lorje, kíljie, náabye, cwiin'gye
Type 3 xámp, zholt, ghúc, juk xëmbúu, zhlduu, ghücúu, jüguu xáambwe, zhuldwe, ghúujwe, juugwe
Simple variation vowel nouns

Default

Weak Plural
lube, nago, mwaco, xéde, sráje lübii, nëgoo, mwëcoo, xidíi, srëjíi luubeye, naagowe, mwaacowe, xíideye, sráajeye

Complex variation nouns

Palatal nouns
Default Weak Plural
Voiced stop base Type 1 perji, ñélji, yúgi, tóbi prjiaa, ñljiáa, yügyáa, tëbyáa piirjrye, ñíljlye, yúugïngye, tóobüvye
2 náji, húji, tségi, tólbi nëjjíi, hüjjíi, tsïgzhíi, tlbzhíi náajrye, húujlye, tsíigïngye, túlbüvye
3 hloji, xworji, ryagi, vyúbi hlëjiuu, xwrjiuu, ryëgyuu, vyübyúu hloojrye, xwurdlye, ryaagïngye, vyúubüvye
Voiceless base type 1 gzhéci, dloci, numgi, sólbi ghiciáa, dlëcaa, nümkyaa, slpyáa ghzíicrhye, dlootlhye, nuumkïhngye, súupüfye
2 móbi mëpshíi móopüfye
3 pláci plëcáa pláatlhye


Labial nouns
Default Weak PLural
Voiced 1 ráju rëjwáa ráajrwe
2 hwogu hwëgwii hwoogüngwe
3 sandu sëndvuu saandlwe
Voicless 1 zlecu zlicwaa zliicrhwe
2 hméldu hmltwíi hmíltlwe
3 shúbu shüpfúu shúupüfwe


Historically ejective nouns
Default Weak Plural
frábe, lyóndi, shriju, tógo frëbíi, lyëndíi, shrijuu, tëgóo fráabüveye, lyóondlye, shriijrwe, tóogëngowe


Intervocal stop nouns
Default Weak Plural
tádo, kluge

ñárce, sábo

tëdóo, klügii

ñërcíi, sëbóo

táadowe, kluugeye

ñórjeye, sáabowe


Fricative nouns
Default Weak Plural
Simple voiceless dvasa, tómfa, rwéshu, zumxe dvësaa, tëmfáa, rwïsháa, zümxaa dvaatse, tóompfe, rwíiccwe, zuumkkeye
Complex voiceless clúso, kólfe, bváfi, hyaxe clüsóo, klfíi, bvëfii, hyëxii clúutlhowe, kúlpüfeye, bváa
Voiced tevo, ñúzo, lazhe tivoo, ñüzóo, lëzhii

tiivüvowe, ñúuzlowe,

laazhreye


Liquid and nasal nouns (4 parts)
Default consonant Default Vowel Weak Plural
shúun, ryaam, pshiing shúnz, ryamv, pshen'g shüné, ryëmé, pshingé shúunde, ryaambe, pshiin'ge
jáal, kóor jáls, kórsh jëlé, këré jáahle, kóohre

Basic endings

Endings using the first principle part

Singular Paucal
Stop Consonant/schwa Vowel Stop Consonant/schwa Vowel
Agent - - ii, uu zh, v
Causative ëye ye iizhe, uuve zhazh, vazh
Ablative ehn kihn iiñi, uum ñzh, ma
Comitative ent kint iiñzhu, uumzhu ñzhu, mt
Benefactive empi kimpi iiñibi, uumpi ñip, map
Vialis or vr iiren, uuren zhrn, vrn
Instrumental l l iyan, uwan zhën, vën
Adessive mazh mazh iimi, uumi zhmi, vmi
Locative hi hi iishi, uushi zhi, vi
Dative ci ci iic, uuc shc, fc
Patientive *see 2 yan, wan *see 2 zhan, van
Posessive *see 2 ino, uno *see 2 zhño, vno
Comparative *see 2 ihno, uhno *see 2 shno, fno
Genitive/ Combining stem *see 2 in, un *see 2 zhñi, vnë

These endings can be added to the 1st prinicple part of the noun using sandhi. One thing must be noted for consonant nouns, nouns ending in a simple voiceless stop will often have a semivowel inserted between the consonant and the ending. Which semivowel is inserted requires knowledge of the second principle part, nouns ending in an ii, like mügíi, will have a y inserted, nouns ending in an uu will hae a w inserted. Nouns ending in aa have nothing inserted. Therefore, the noun múk, mügíi, múugye, will have a y inserted in the ablative (múkyehn), as that ending starts with the vowel e, and múk's second principle part ends in ii.

Endings using the second principle part
Patientive ha
Possessive ng
Comparative ho
Genitive/combining stem -


Endings using the third principle part
Consonant Vowel
Agent e e
Causative ëye zhe
Ablative aman aman
Comitative amant amant
Benefactive amampi amampi
Vialis ren ren
Instrumental l hl
Addessive mazh mazh
Locative ëzh zh
Dative ëc c
Patientive VhVVm* VhVVm*
Posessive mo mo
Comparative ëhmo hmo
Genitive/Combing stem ëm m
  • V means vowel of the second syllable, which is reduplicated. Schwa endings do not reveal the final consonant in vowel ending nouns.

Consonant declension

Voiceless consonant ending

K-nouns group 1 animate, múk, múge, mûgíi (dog-like animal)
Single Paucal Plural
Agent múk múgii Template:Hpc
Causative múgëye múgiizhe Template:Hpc
Ablative Template:HpcTemplate:Hpc múgiiTemplate:Hpc Template:HpcTemplate:Hpc
Comitative Template:HpcTemplate:Hpc múgiiTemplate:Hpc Template:HpcTemplate:Hpc
Benefactive Template:HpcTemplate:Hpc múgiiTemplate:Hpc Template:HpcTemplate:Hpc
Vialis Template:Hpc múgiiren Template:Hpc
Instrumental múkl múgiyan Template:Hpc
Adessive múkmazh múgiimi Template:Hpc
Locative múxi múgiishi Template:Hpc
Dative múkci múgiic Template:Hpc
Patient Template:Hpc múgiyan Template:Hpc
Posessive Template:Hpc múgino Template:Hpc
Comparative Template:Hpc múkihno Template:Hpc
Genitive/Combining form Template:Hpc múgin Template:Hpc

1: stems marked in Bold require knowledge of the invisible vowel, always marked in the second principle part

2: stems marked in Template:Hpc are formed off of the second principle part

3: stems marked in Template:Hpc are formed off of the third principle part

4: endings marked in Template:Hpc use the ablative stem, and are similar across all nouns. Forming the ablative stem require knolwedge of both the first and second principle parts.

Endings added to the combining stem

These endings are added to the combining stem, and must themselves be declined before the noun is used. These nouns may only be declined in the dative, locative, vialis, and ablative. They are effectively "prepositional nouns". They decline irregularily.

The Location in time suffixes are effectively only used for events and verbal nouns, . For example "cénzupor": means "the event of me seeing him". Add the time locative jep to the combining stem, and you get "céninzuprejep", meaning "at the time I was speaking to him". Adding "nu" before "jep" means before, adding "pya" means after, "céninzuprenujep": before I spoke to him, "céninzuprepyajep": after I spoke to him.

The dative means "until", "céninzupresañci me zénihnloo" means "he didn't go until I saw him."

The vialis means "during", or "the whole time", "shúñci ceñocayolshaajut cíirváa" means "During he entire time I was speaking to the man, he watched me". "Shüñáajut pécukihn zénlíil behrudokci." means "It takes the whole day to get from here to the Behru capitol."

The ablative means "since", "nushüñáamihn me cíininwaan" means "I haven't seen him since yesterday."

The other suffixes are used in effectively the same way as their simple counterparts, eg:

mélohi: at the car mélokihn: from the car. méloci: to the car

milóone: in the car milóonehn: from in the car. milóoneci: to the inside of the car.

milóore: outside of the car milóorehn: from outside of the car, etc.


Combining stem endings
Locative Locative verbal Dative Vialis Ablative
Location in time (nu)(pya)jep - sañci jut mihn
Within ne ñu neci nut nehn
Outside re ryu reci rut rehn
Left of yozh yoyu yocci yoyut yoyehn
Right of myak myaklu myakci myakut myakehn

Showing that a noun is posessed.

If a noun is owned by another noun (marked in the posessive case), an infix is inserted before the second syllable/final consonant that agrees with the possessor. The genitive case is only used when one noun owns another noun, or with relations (my mother, your father). If one noun is part of the other noun, then a compound word using the combining stem is used instead. Inanimate objects always use the combining stem, never the posessive.

Posessive agreement infixes (and use with múk)
Singular Paucal Plural
1st person në, múnëk bi, múbik më, múmëk
2nd person xë, múxëk xi, múxik gë, múgëk
3rd person lü, múlük zi, múzik lnë, múlnëk
4th person pl, múplk

The possessed nouns may be further declined, múbik (our dog), múbigii (our dogs), múbigiiñipi (for our dogs).

note: the consonants n,m,ng,ñ,r,l,f,v,sh,and zh are considered part of the previous syllable when followed by another consonant, for example, xworji divides into xwor-ji, xamp divides to xam-p, thus you'd get xworziji and xamzip, not xwozirji and xazimp.


Verb Morphology Behru verbs are conjugated by factors, person, number, transitivity, tense aspect, and mood. Many Behru sentences consist of only a verb, as both the subject and object may be dropped if they can be determined by context.

Verb Morphology

The four basic stems

Each verb has four stems whose forms are unpredictable from eachother, which are are the basic, causative, weak, and special stems. All other verb stems can be predicted from these four.

The four stems of the root cet, meaning to speak, are: cet, crwiit, cidaa, and cocash(y).

The basic stem and independent conjugation.

The basic stem has the Independant personal agreement endings added to it, for example, the basic stem of cet, is well, cet, and the conjugated forms are: cedúu: I speak, cedabi: we(ex.) speak, cedaji: we(inc.) speak, cedaak: you (singular) speak, cedaak: you(paucal) speak, cedage: you(plural) speak, etc. However, these endings are not added onto the stem directly, some sound changes must be done first, according to the rules listed below.

Ivc Rule 1

The fully conjugated form of the verb must have two syllables after the verb stem.

(verb-stem final vowels are considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it)

Clause 1

If not, lengthen the first vowel after the verb stem If you want to say "I speak" (in an independant clause, of course, as we are studying the Independant forms of a verb), you take the basic stem of the verb to speak(cet, and add the 1st person subject ending (intransitive of course), ú, making cedú (not cetú, remember sandhi rule 12, it caused that t to change to a d.). However, that is not actually the correct form, due to Ivc(independant verb conjugation) rule 1: all ivc forms must have at least 3 syllables. Ivc rule one says "lengthen the second syllable", thus, lengthen the second syllable. So, lengthen the second syllable of "cedú" to "cedúu". If you want to say "you(singular) flee", you add "k" to the basic stem of to flee, "shúnda", forming "shúndak", and then apply rule 1, forming "shúndaak". Remember, the final "a" in "shúnda" is considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it, which is why it is lengthened by rule 1.

However, ivc rule 1 isn't that simple. You might assume that in order to say we(ex.) speak, you would add cet and bi to make cedbi, and then apply rule 1 on the second syllable to make it cedbii(3 syllables). However the true form of we (ex.) speak is "cedabi", not "cedbii". You will learn why in ivc rule one clause 2

Clause 2

Do not lengthen the second syllable if it follows a consonant cluster created by the end of the verb stem and the beginnning of a personal ending. Instead, insert an epenthetic vowel appropriate to the verb stem between the stem and ending. That was allot to take in, wasn't it? It will seem simpler with examples. For examples, the form "cedbi" would have ivc 1 clause 2 applied to it because a: it is only 2 syllables long (ced+bi), and, the cluster "db was created by the t(changed to a d) at the end of the verb stem "cet" + the b at the beginning of the personal ending "bi". Thus, you'd add the epenthetic vowel appropriate to "cet" (a), between stem and ending, producing "cedabi" (cet+a+bi).

However, if you want to say "I float", clause two does not apply. When you take the basic stem of to float, "kómt"(takes the epenthetic vowel a), and add "ú", you make "kómtú"(Why didn't the t change to a d like in "cedú"? Read sandhi rule 12.). You might think to apply clause two because of the consonant, making "kómadú", but that is not correct. The consonant cluster was not created by contact with the end of the verb stem and beginning of the personal ending, it was already there in the stem, thus clause one would apply, forming "kómtúu". However, clause two does apply in the form "kómdbi" (we speak), because the cluster "mdb" was created by the b in the ending "bi", meaning we(ex.), thus, "kómdbi" would become "kómtabi", not "kómdbii".

You can usually tell the epenthetic vowel by the final vowel of the weak stem form, for example, the weak stem of "cet" is "cidaa", so the epenthetic vowel is "a". However, this does not always work, for example, "we swim" would be "vábebi", even though the weak stem of váp is "vábii", suggesting that "we swim" would instead be "vábibi". These irregularities just have to be learned by rote. However, we are still not done with ivc rule 1.

Clause 3

If, after the application of Clause 2, the verb ending is still not 2 syllables long, lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by Clause 2. This rule would apply in cases like when you want to say "you(singular) speak". You add the ending "k" to "cet", forming "cetk". you then apply clause two to "cetk", forming "cetak". However, there is still only one syllable after the stem even after the applucation of clause two. Clause three says to lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by clause two, thus "cetak" becomes "cedaak". "kómtk" (you float) becomes "kómtak" beomces "kómtaak", "vápk" (you swim)becomes "vápek", becomes "vábiik", etc. (the e in vabek lengthens to "ii", not "ee", this alway happens, as there is no "ee" sound in Behru).

Ivc rule 2

Disyllabic endings become monosyllabic after verb stems ending in a vowel. This rule is in much the same vein as ivc rule 1, it keeps the verb ending at two syllables, as the final vowel in the verb stem takes up a syllable, forcing the ending to give up a syllable in its place. For example, "they go", is "zíihnloon" (zíin+hloon), however, "they flee", is "shúndahlon", "hloon" giving up a vowel to become "hlon" to accomodate the final a in "shúnda".

"you heal me" is "hnaalnimu"("hnaal"+"nimu"), however, "you hit me", is "cábammyu", "nimu" being reduced to "mmyu" to accomodate the final a in "cába".

"you heal us", is "hnaaldasa"("hnaal+dasa), "you hit us", is "cábatsa", etc. The shortened verb endings are listed to the left of long endings in the polypersonal agreement endings chart.

Ivc rule 3

Ivc rule 3 applies only to verb stems ending in liquids (n,m,ng,r, and l)., and overrides any other ivc rules of a lower number that could be applied.

Verbs stems ending in said consonants have their core vowel shortened before personal endings starting with a vowel. In addition, an epenthetic consonant appropriate to the verb stem is inserted.

For example, if you want to say "I go", you add the stem for "to go", "zíin", and add "ú" for the ending. However, "ú" starts with a vowel, so Ivc special rule 1 would apply. The appropriate consonant to insert for verbs ending in an "n" is "z", thus zíinú has its vowel shortened to "zénú", then the epenthetic consonant inserted, producing "zénzú.

For verbs ending in an "ng", add "g", "míing-ú"(I shrink) becomes "ménggúu"

For verbs ending in an "m", add "v", "xáam-ú"(I slip) becomes "xámvúu"

For verbs ending in an "l", add "z", "yuul-ú"(I walk) becomes "yulzúu"

For verbs edning in an "r", add "zh", "cíir-óxa"(he watches thou) becomes "cérzhóxa"

Ivc rule 4

Verb stems that would be affected by ivc rule 3 are unnafected by clauses 2 and 3 of ivc rule 1

Clause 1

The first vowel of the verb ending is lengthened if the ending is not 2 syllables long If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r. Thus, "yuul-bi" (we walk), which has a one syllable ending, is changed to "yuulbii", "cíin-tó" (I see thee) is changed to "cíintóo".

Clause 2

If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r, the endings -k and -k are changed to -kaa and -kii.

The ending "k" is actually two endings, one meaning "thou" and the other meaning "you few". In ordinary verbs, these endings are both the same, but in these verbs, the ending splits, if you want to say "thou walk", you say "yuulkaa", if you want to say "you walk", you say "yuulkii"

Tense and aspect

Formation of past and future tenses

To form the past tense of a verb

like cet

or mózhda

add li before the final syllable of the stem or the very final consonant.

cet to celit

mózhda to mózhnida

To form the future tense of a verb

like mála

or hmwant

add ni before the final syllable of the stem or the very final consonant.

mála to mánila

hmwant to hmwannit



Formation of the progressive

To form the progressive tense of a verb starting or containing a consonant cluster ending in a consonant, fricative, y, hy, w, or hw

like cet, féde, tádo, yul

Insert an infix after the first consonant consisting of the weakened first vowel and a voiced fricative of the same point of articulation as said consonant

cizhet, fivéde, tëzádo, yüzhul

(notice, verbs starting in c, j, sh, zh, and ñ can use z or zh depending on whether they sonorize with an l [use z] or and r [uze zh]

To form the progressive of a verb starting in a nasal

like ñen, muk, hnédo, ngyoba

do the same as above, but add a nasal consonant before the consonant infix (ñ is treated like n, ng uses n'g

ñinzen, mümvuk, hninzédo, ngyën'goba

To form the progressive of a verb starting in or having a consonant cluster ending in r or l

like rop, zhlún

reduplicate lV or rV, and weaken first syllable

rërop, zhlülún

The passive and causative stems

The passive is formed by palatilizing the last consonant in the first consonant cluster (adding a y). The causative is formed by labialization of that same consonant(adding a w). The first vowel is lengthened in both forms. Some initial consonants/ consonant clusters must be sonorized before being palatalized or labialized. The causative stem is included in the principle parts to show whether or not this happens. You must check this in the dictionary entry on the verb's stems. For example, the causative stem of cet is crwiit. To change it to passive, replace the w with y, crwiit to cryiit. Sandhi changes cryiit to crshiit. The causative stem of lup is lvuup. The v was a w, changed to a v by sandhi. So replace the w(changed into a v), with y, lvuup to lyuup

Special compound stem

There exists a closed class of clitic verbs in Behru which are suffixed to the stem of a free standing verb. The basic stem is not used, instead the special compound stem is used. The form of the special compound stem is unpredictable and thus is a principle part. (note: the basic stem is used in ordinary compound verbs, not the special compound stem.) The special compound stem is also used to add nominal endings to.

cet becomes cocash/ cocay

mála becomes hmáalash/ hmáalay

zén becomes zhóni/ zhónis

zot becomes zootwash/ zootway

xworji becomes xworojii/ xworojii(s)

Common clitic verbs

-es/et: possible, eg: cocayesú: I can speak

ghóon: to start, eg: cocazhghóohnlo: he is about to begin speaking

shosu: to cease, eg: zéyëdacosuji: we will stop moving momentarily

Tense and aspect in compound verbs.

The very last verb in a compound always recieves the tense/aspect infixes, in the same manner as a normal verb.

thus, cocayet: can speak, as in cocayedbi: we can speak, vs cocayenit: was able to speak, as in cocayenidbi: we were able to speak.


Polypersonal agreement

The Behru verb agrees with its preformer, or subject, in person and number. A transitive verb also agrees with its object in person, subject, and number. Verb endings are added to the stem in the same manner noun endings are.

Intransitive verb participant agreement
Singular Paucal Plural
1st person ú bu ji
2nd person k(aa) k(ii) ke
3rd person hlo zu hloon-hlon
4th person líl-l
Nominal form
Singular Paucal Plural
1st person émi ébi éji
2nd person éjri énang éjre
3rd person olasha ángude oliishan
4th person éhwe
Descriptive form
Singular Paucal Plural
ñu mav ñoon
Transitive verb subject-object agreement

Object>

subject

1

single

1 paucal 1 plural 2 single 2 paucal 2 plural 3 animate single 3 animate paucal 3 animate plural 3 inanimate single 3 inanimate paucal 3 inanimate plural 4th p
1p one - - - ru tr wan uzhbu-zhbu unen-nwen i idu-ju idán-ján iga-gya
1p few - - - cóv de zhá linu-lnu zháan-zhán bi bidu-bbu bidán-bbán igav-gyav
1p many - - - twé rwe twr wen uzhbwe-zhbwe nwiin-nwin jie jiedu-jju jiedán-jján ige-gye
2p one nim dasa-tsa iwa-zhwa - - - lit kendu-ktu afnan-hnwan xi xidu-txyu xidán-txyán kóoga-kóok
2p few nimu-mmyu dasu-tsu ivu-zhvu - - - lic kshindu-ctu ifnan-hñyan xizh xizhdu-cxyu xizhdán-cxyán kóogav-kóop
2p many nime-mmye dase-tse iwe-zhwe - - - liisht-lisht kshiindu-cant efnan-hñyan xe xedu-txu xedán-txán kóoge-kóok
3 single fingu-hnngyu vaam-vam óxa-xa óxi-xi óxe-xe rayáa kabu-ppu uzhgan-gyun ri ridu-ju ridán-ján yavba-vbya
3 paucal za zidu-ju zoon-zon óhan-han óhnu-hnu óhne-hne iben-byen bimu-mmu izhen-zhen zi zidu-dzu zidán-dzán sinav-hñav
3 plural fengu-hnngu viim-vem óca-ca óci-ci óce-ce rézh kebu-ppyu exhgan-gwen ehli-hle ehlit-hlit eltánn-tlán yavbe-vbye
4th person gañi-ngzhi gamu-ngmu gañe-ngye ózhdo-zhdo ózhdov-zhdov ózhdwe-zhdwe ótso-tso ódzu-dzu ótson-tson óci-ci ócit-cit óctan-can -


Participial endings
1 single 1 paucal 1 plural 2 single 2 paucal 2 plural 3 animate single 3 animate paucal 3 animate plural 3 inanimate single 3 inanimate paucal 3 inanimate plural 4
1st single - - - amo amark amar upor uzhbuk upran ér iráp iránt usuk
1 paucal - - - yazok dáafk yezok ushk ulnuk ushken ber birap birant ufuk
1 plural - - - émo émerk émar wepor wezhbuk wepran jiér jieráp jieránt uusuk
2 single oxon odók onók - - - úcohya ahmaase fok ujri ujrip ujrint ákashk
2 paucal ixan idák inák - - - úcac ahmaac fac ináng inangáp inangánt ikashk
2 plural oxiin odíik oníik - - - úcíihye ahmiise fiik wiijri wejrip wjerint ákaashk
3 single osar lert ason uvlak uvlagu uvlaage osep aksap osek ulasha ulashap ulashant azehl
3 paucal azhar efek azhek usunk usungvu usuungwe wanar nik waner inguut inguudep inguudent idun
3 plural esar ledi asen uvlek uvlegu uvliige esep aksep esek ulesha uleshap uleshant azehna
4 yagún yagbin yagmán yagák yagin yagáak yaksha yakshun yakshe yahwe yahwep yahwent


Descriptive endings
Other preformer Number 1st person singular 1 paucal 1 plural 2 singular 2 paucal 2 plural 3 animate singular 3a paucal 3a plural 3 inanimate singular 3in paucal 3in plural 4
Described subject Singular sóop udbi sóomt sóok sóogu sóoge mav olvu mév tek tekyup tekyunt fazh
Paucal ngep dibi ngemt ngek ngegu ngege div divu jév méni méñup méñunt ngezh
Plural síip wedbi síimt síik síigu síige siv welvu shév unán unúp unúnt síizh
Described object Singular bak bik omsá igazh igizh igaazh wor ihru wer pásh pábi páñci dwoo
Paucal ngak ngik dimsá digazh digizh digaazh mir mihru mer básh bábi báñci bwoo
PLural báak bíik umsá ugazh ugizh ugaazh nir nihru ner myásh myábi myáñci mwoo

Deriving verbs to nouns

Nominalizing suffixes
ka (irregularily declined) gerund, cètka would mean speaking. Often used to form abstract nouns, málaka means "movement"
zo inanimate object associated with the verb (often imparts an irregular meaning which must be learned independantly) cèdzo would mean "words, speech
hen means -er in english, also used to indicate the inhabitant of a location, cèsen would mean speaker, kìdilihen would mean an idili person.
hik means "a way of doing something, method". cesik would mean "language"(way of speaking)
ya indicates an instance or cycle, can be used for both nouns and verbs. Typically paired with a number prefix, ñecèca would mean "third speech"
co indicates an event, such as in macco "the event of peace"
láng means the same thing as -ness in english, added to the descriptive stem of a verb, as in xuweláng "livelyness, health"


Talking about an entire sentence as a noun

The so called "participial endings" turn an entire clause into a noun. They may be added to the basic, weak and special stems, imparting different meanings in each case. The special stem plus the participial ending describes the entire action as an event, gyáhenibwora (gyáhenibu: to injure past tense, plus -ora, the participial ending meaning the action was done by a singular third person to first person), means "the event of injuring me". This noun could then be declined into the causative to form a complex sentence, for example "gyáhenibworaye zhánilzúu", "because he hit me I died". Using the basic stem adds a sense of uncertainity, "gyániboraye zhánilzúu" would mean "if he'd injured me I might have died. Use the weak stem describes the preformer of the action rather than the event itself, "gyënibáahora" means "the one who injured me".

Noun incorporation

A Behru verb may incorporate a noun, decreasing its transitivity by one. The noun is prefixed to the verb in its Weak form, and usually acts as the object of the verb.

hyép(transitive): to eat> bëlóohyép(intransitive): to eat bólo.

Some verbs must always incorporate nouns, some of these are attached to the strong stem of the noun, like -tsu.

(x)tsu: to make x> bólotsu(intransitive): to make bólo.

As intransitive verbs cannot lose any more transitivity, a noun incorporated into them instead expresses an instrumental relationship between the noun and verb, for example

zíin(intransitive): to go, jëlóozíin: to go by aircraft, milóozíin: to go by vehicle

kót: to fly, jëlóokót: to fly by aircraft.

Noun incorporation is preffered to using a transitive verb in sentences involving inanimate objects, particularily if the objects are indefinite, giving a subtle difference in meaning.

for example, "bëlóohyénibyúu" means "I ate bolo", however, "bëlóoha hyénipshii" would mean "I ate the bolo."

The copulas

The copulas are suffixes attached to the predicate noun in an equative sentence. It conjugates irregularily. The -lu copula is the stative copula, you use it to say "the dog is red". The ru copula is the change copula, you'd use it to say "the dog has gotten redder", or "the dog is red but it wasn't the last time I saw it.". The byu copula is used to indicate resemblance but not equality, "that dog is like its owner."

Conjugation of the copulas
Lu Ru Byu
Present Past Present Past Present Past
1st person singular foba dam - - byoba byam
1 paucal fobu dabu - - byobu byabu
1 plural níin díin - - biníin bzhíin
2nd person singular foxa dang - - byoxa byang
2 paucal foxu dangu - - byoxu byangu
2 plural foxe dange - - byoxe byange
3rd person singuar animate lon da ron ja son bya
3a paucal loju daju roju jayu soju byaju
3a plural kíin díin ríin jíin bíin bzhíin
3rd person singular inanimate lu du ru ju su byu
3ina paucal luv duv ruv juv suv byuv
3ina plural lun dun run jun sun byun
4th person sil dil ril jil bil biil

The comparative copula

The comparative copula states one thing is more x than another. The copula comes after the adjective it is using for comparison. Its "subject" is what is described, and the "object" is the basis of comparison, in the comparative case. The top of the columns indicate what is being described, the beginning of the rows, what they are being compared to.

Comparative copula
1 singular 1 paucal 1 plural 2 singular 2 paucal 2 plural 3 animate singular 3 animate paucal 3 animate plural 3 inanimate singular 3 inanimate paucal 3 inanimate plural 4
1 singular - - - tsok tsogu tsoge tsuu tsovu tswe tsop tsfup tsont tsl
1 paucal - - - tsobuk tsobugu tsobuge tsobuu tsobuvu tsobwe tsobup tsobyup tsobunt tsobl
1 plural - - - tsíink tsíingu tsíinge tsíinuu tsíimvu tsíine tsíimp tsíiñup tsíinunt tsíinl
2 singular tsoxam tsoxabu tsoxama - - - tsoxuu tsoxavu tsoxwe tsoxap tsoxyup tsoxant tsoxl
2 paucal tsoxum tsoxubu tsoxuma - - - tsoxuu tsoxuvu tsoxwe tsoxup tsoxuup tsoxunt tsoxl
2 plural tsoxem tsoxebu tsoxema - - - tsoxyuu tsoxevu tsoxii tsoxep tsoxyup tsoxent tsoxl
3 singular tsum tsubu tsuma tsuk tsugu tsuge tsuyáa tsabu tsagan tsap cup tsant tsal
3 paucal tsuum tsuubu tsuuma tsuuk tsuugu tsuuge tsuur tsuuhru tser tsuup tsuuyup tsuunt tsuul
3 plural tsíim tsíibu tsíima tsíik tsíigu tsíige tsíir tsíihru ciir tsíip tsiyúp tsíint tsíil
4 díim díibu díima díik díigu díige díisa díizu díisan díip diyúp díint -

Behru syntax

Noun syntax

Basic case (bsc)

The basic case is used for

-the agent of a transitive verb

múk shüneha kyocaryá: the dog pushes the man

dog-s-bsc man-s-pac push-3psa.3pans.p~idp

-the participant in an intransitive verb

múk cetloo: the dog speaks

dog-s-bsc speak-3ps.it

-before the topic particle zú

múuge zú nebalíl: as for dogs, they run

dog-pl-bsc TOPIC run-4p~idp

The topic

The topic of the sentence is a noun marked with the postposition zú. It is used in the gnomic tense, to set that noun apart from other nouns in a dsecription. The topic need not be the subject of the sentence, it can be in any case. Verbs marked with a 4th person agreement agree with the last stated topic in a discourse

Causative case (cac)

The causative case is used for the cause of a verb in the causative.

cinidémiye múk nwiinibahlo: because I spoke, the dog ran

Some verbs can use the basic or causative cases, this causes a subtle change in meaning

shúun kwootri: the man throws it (causes it to fly), vs.

shúuñe kwoootlo: because of the man, it flies (the man did something else leading it to fly.

Ablative case (abc)

used for the origin of a motion

shúun zú béhrusokihn zéninlíil: as for the man, he came from the Behru homeland.

Comitative case (cmc)

Is used for the companion in an action.

shúun múkyant ninzebahlon: the man was running with the dog.

And to make adverbs out of nouns

másajákint cenitlo: she spoke strongly (with strength).

Vialis case (vac)

Used to indicate means of travel

shúun sedoñci béhrusokimpi zénihnlo: the man went to Sedone through the behru homeland

jálokimpi wunëdici kodú: I fly to my home by aircraft.

Instrumental case (isc)

Used to indicate tools used to complete an action.

molumikl hmoonlíil: it shines with heat.

Adessive case (adc)

used to indicate something an action was done without.

wálübakint cidolashamash sedoñci zénihnlo: she went to sedone without talking to her mother.

mother~3ps.po

Locative case (lcc)

Used to indicate the location of an action

doonde vudihi nebahloon: the children run in the house.

child-pl-bsc house-s-lcc run-3ppl.it

Dative case (dtc)

used to indicate the indirect object of a verb, the exact meaning varies.

The target of a verb of motion: shúuñci múk nenibahlo: the dog ran to the man.

man-sg-dtc dog-s-bsc run~past-3ps.it~idp

The target of a bitransitive verb: shúun vulüdici kwoonitri: the man threw it at his house.

man-sg-bsc house~3ps.po-s-dtc throw~past-3ps.a~3pins.p~idp

Patient case (ptc)

used to indicate the direct object of an intransitive verb.

shúun tëlübyáaha túnijrehlo: the man took off his overshirt.

man-s-bsc overshirt~3ps.po-s-ptc remove~past-3ps.a~3pins.p~idp

Posessive case (poc)

used to indicate that one noun owns another.

shüneng tóbi: the man's overshirt

Comparative case (coc)

Used to indicate the basis of comparison

táamtsuu ledëneho: I am taller Than that child (compared to that child)

be.tall-compare-1ps.a~3pans.p that-child-s-coc

For describing relationships.

yóondemo huboloju: They are friends to those men. (In his "in" group)

man-pl-coc accquainted-be-3ppa.it

yóondemo rúnaloju: The are outsiders to those men

man-pl-coc outside-be-3ppa.it

For describing location

ficúuho vénzi yulññehyoju: The women are three miles away from the city

city-s-coc woman-pa-bsc mile-3-s-be.at-3ppa.it

Combining stem

Numbers

Behru has a base 12 numbering system. Simple numbers are simply suffixed after the nouns they count. The result is then declined like a noun.

1 mu 12 gu 144 sran 1728 ghwe 20736 sha 248832 gusha

429981616

sisha

8916100448256

sifosha

12^16

siñesha

2 fo

24

fu

288 fowan 3456 fowe

41472

fosha

497664

fusha

859963232

fosisha

etc etc
3 ñe

36 ñu

432

ñeyan

5184

ñewe

62208

ñesha

746496

ñusha

etc

4

ber

48

bru

576 beran 6912 berwe etc etc
5 dat 60 datu etc etc
6 hmye 72 hmyu
7 vel 84 vlu
8 fer 96 fru
9 niñe 108 niñu
10 suk 120 suku
11 ruse 121 rusu

Compound numbers.

To make complex numbers, like 25, or 156, one strings together the simple numbers in a sequence of addition from the biggest to the smallest number.

25: fumu fu(24) and mu(1)

156: srangu sran(144( and gu(12)

157: srangumu

305: fowanggudat

when a number is affixed to a noun, it is declined like a noun. Typically, the penultimate vowel takes a ` accent and is subject to vowel strengthening or weakening. For example, 25 beds would be mùkfùmu, but if declined in the owner case, it would be mùkfümungò, and in the direction case, it would be mùkfùmuhi. 10 beds would be mùksùk. towards the (12^12)*11 people would be shúnrusesifòshashi

Ordinal numbers

Behru ordinal numbers are formed simply by prefixing a number to a noun. They are usually prefixed to a noun like -tsék(place) or -ya (time, as in a cycle)

Fractional numbers

Fractions in Behru are formed by the suffix -t for numbers which end in a vowel and -ta for ones ending in a consonant. The fractions for half, third, fourth, and twelfth are formed irregularily. They are -kir, nisa, besa, and gusa. they are used the same way normal numbers are, mùkrusèt would be 1 eleventh of a bed. If one wishes to count the fractions, those numbers are suffixed past the fraction. mùksransùktaruse would mean "eleven 154ths of a bed"

Usage of numbers, and approximate quantities

A specific number is always declined in the "few" number, as the few number is considered to encompass all small or specific quantities. A general number, like -not, which means some, is considered a mass noun, and all mass nouns use the "many" case.

General quantity suffixes -hok: every,all -mok: none -hot: some -huk: most -muk: few

Number modifying suffixes: -sát: around, aprroximately -kere: only, just

Honorifics

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