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===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Bis Burunko has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:
Bis Burunko has a relatively restricted syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |
* optional  
* optional  
* only ''b, g, d, z, f, j, h, x, l, n, ng'' or ''m'' word-initially
* any consonant but ''sh, r'' word-initially (''s'' and ''p'' only occur before ''u'')
* any consonant word-medially
* any consonant word-medially
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " |  
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " |  
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===Stress===
===Stress===
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'')or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'') or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').


Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.
Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.


In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").  
In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").
 
===Orthography===
Bis Burunko was traditionally written in a semi-syllabary called '''''higomido''''', which was originally a rune-like system carved into stone, wood and bone but later developed a more calligraphic style used on paper-like sheets of wood.
 
The ''higomido'' consist of five specific vowel graphs, 41 consonant-vowel combinations (plosives, fricatives and affricates) and 7 individual consonant symbols (finals ''s, sh, ng'' and the remaining nasals and liquids ''m, n, l, r'').
 
Other sequences of sounds are formed using these 53 symbols in combination:
* diphthongs and double vowels are written using either a vowel + vowel combination (e.g. ''a + i = ai''), or the relevant syllabic + vowel combination (''ba + i = bai'').
* glide + vowel combinations are written using ''i/u'' + vowel (e.g. ''i + a = ya''), or ''Ci/Cu'' + vowel (e.g. ''bi + a = bya'').
* sequences of ''ch''V and ''j''V are written with the symbols for ''chi'' and ''ji'' + the relevant vowel (e.g. ''chi + a = cha'').
* nasals and liquids are simply followed by the relevant vowel (e.g. ''m + a = ma'').
* while there is a specific symbol for ''pu'', other combinations of ''pV'' - which only occur as a result of devoicing by a preceding (former) sibilant - are formed with the b-syllabics preceded by either ''s'' or ''sh'' (e.g. )
 
==Roots, Stems and Derivation==
The majority of lexical items in Bis Burunko are based on mono- or disyllabic roots that may have verbal, nominal or adjectival meaning - or a combination of these, e.g. ''DANG'' 'drink', ''GI'' 'meat, flesh', MEI 'dark'. In this article, roots are written in capitals to denote them as such.
 
Some roots can be used as nouns or adjectives without further modification, e.g. ''gi'' 'meat, flesh', ''uz'' 'water', ''mei'' 'dark'. Verbs require the addition of the prefix ''e-, i-, y-'' to create a basic infinitive form (e.g. ''edang'' 'drink'), or they can be compounded with other elements (e.g. ''uddang'' 'drink water' < ''UZ + DANG''). Primarily verbal roots can be nominalised with the prefix ''a-'', e.g. ''adang'' 'a drink'.
 
The most common way of deriving new words is by compounding.


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
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===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are of two types. Verbal adjectives are the participles in ''-ng/na'' or ''-i'' (e.g. ''ekonna'' "growing", ''ewai'' "tired, exhausted, spent"). Nominal adjectives are either primary adjectives (e.g. ''haz'' "old", ''ong'' "good") or derived from a noun, other adjective or a verb (e.g. ''acchi'' "masculine", ''ukko'' "watery, aquatic", ''eyiking'' "pessimistic, defeatist" < ''exi'' "despair").
Any of these adjectives may occur attributively by preceding the noun they qualify unmodified, e.g. ''haz gyong to'' "that old man", ''ekonna fuz'' "a growing tree", ''eyiking heni chiri'' "three pessimistic guards".
When used predicatively, both types of adjective follow the entire noun phrase and precede the relevant form of ''yita'' "to be". Verbal adjectives are unmodified in this usage and, as often with English, the adjectival function of the participle is indistinguishable from the verbal function, e.g. ''fuz tong ba ekonna xiniteng'' "this tree wasn't growing", ''haz gyong to ba ewai jaite'' "that old man is tired".
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Cardinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1''' || width="100px;" | ''su(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''11''' || width="100px;" | ''xassu(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''21''' || width="100px;" | ''hatorunsu''
|-
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || '''12''' || ''xazai'' || '''22''' || ''hatorunhai''
|-
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || '''13''' || ''xaggi''|| '''30''' || ''gyauka''
|-
| '''4''' || ''xa'' || '''14''' || ''xasa'' || '''40''' || ''xauka''
|-
| '''5''' || ''maka'' || '''15''' || ''xammaka'' || '''50''' || ''makauka''
|-
| '''6''' || ''ute'' || '''16''' || ''xazute'' || '''60''' || ''utauka''
|-
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || '''17''' || ''xaggyeng'' || '''70''' || ''gyengauka''
|-
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || '''18''' || ''xazeileng'' || '''80''' || ''eilengauka''
|-
| '''9''' || ''suneng'' || '''19''' || ''xassuneng'' || '''90''' || ''sunengauka''
|-
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || '''20''' || ''hatrung'' || '''100''' || ''inung''
|}
Numbers are based on a decimal system, though numbers above 10 are, in reality, rarely used. The word ''inung'', translated here as '100', is generally used for any large number. Higher numbers can be created, somewhat artificially, in the form ''su le inung'' '101', ''xaggyeng le inung'' '117'.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ordinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1st''' || width="100px;" | ''sus'' || '''11th''' || ''xassus''
|-
| '''2nd''' || ''haus'' || '''12th''' || ''xazaush''
|-
| '''3rd''' || ''gish'' || '''13th''' || ''xaggish''
|-
| '''4th''' || ''xash'' || '''14th''' || ''xasash''
|-
| '''5th''' || ''makachi'' || '''15th''' || ''xamakachi''
|-
| '''6th''' || ''utechi'' || '''16th''' || ''xazutechi''
|-
| '''7th''' || ''gyenchi'' || '''17th''' || ''xaggyenchi''
|-
| '''8th''' || ''eilenchi'' || '''18th''' || ''xazeilenchi''
|-
| '''9th''' || ''sunenchi'' || '''19th''' || ''xassunenchi''
|-
| '''10th''' || ''hacchi'' || '''20th''' || ''hatrunchi''
|}
===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
====Personal====
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|}
|}


Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives.
Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives. There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.
There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.


Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.
Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.


No distinctions of case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'.  
No distinctions of gender case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'.  


'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.e. ''nibez, chibez, bibez, bubez, fubez, yekabez''. These function as both emphatic pronouns, drawing particular attention to the person, and reflexive pronouns.
'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.e. ''nibez, chibez, bibez, bubez, fubez, yekabez''. These function as both emphatic pronouns, drawing particular attention to the person, and reflexive pronouns.
There is a tendency to omit pronouns, particularly the subject, where the person referred to is understood from context.
A number of terms of address are used in place of 2nd person pronouns or demonstratives when speaking of high ranking individuals, including: ''fuchi, furung'' (for any addressee), ''burosh, andosh'' (for masc. addressees), ''burez, andez'' (for fem. addressees); ''burai, andai'' (for ''iriji'' addressees).


====Demonstratives====
====Demonstratives====
Demonstratives function as both determiners (preceding the noun) and pronouns and distinguish proximal ''tong'' 'this (near speaker)', medial ''to'' 'that (near listener)' and distal ''taz'' 'that (distant from both listener and speaker, or abstract)'. No distinction is made for gender, and case is marked by particles.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! width="100px;" | !!  width="100px;" | Prox. !! width="100px;" | Dist.
! width="100px;" | !!  width="100px;" | Simple !! width="100px;" | Emphatic
|-
! Inan.
| ''tong'' || ''taz''
|-
|-
! Masc.
! Proximal
| ''attong'' || ''attaz''
| ''tong'' || ''tombez''  
|-
|-
! Fem.
! Medial
| ''demetong'' || ''demetaz''  
| ''to'' || ''tobez''
|-
|-
! Mid.
! Distal
| ''hayatong'' || ''hayataz''  
| ''taz'' || ''tabbez''
|}
|}
The plural forms ''tombu, tobu, tabbu'' occur where number is necessary for clarity or emphasis; otherwise the simple forms are used for both singular and plural referents. 


====Interrogatives and Indefinites====
====Interrogatives and Indefinites====
{| class="wikitable"
Burunko has a related series of adjectives, adverbs and pronouns denoting ...
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
|-
! width="100px;" rowspan="2;"| !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Interrogative !! colspan="3;" | Indefinite  
! width="100px;" rowspan="2;"| !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Proximal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Medial !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Distal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Interrogative !! colspan="3;" | Indefinite  
|-
|-
! width="100px;" | 'any, no' !! width="100px;" | 'every' !! width="100px;" | 'some'
! width="100px;" | 'any, no' !! width="100px;" | 'every' !! width="100px;" | 'some'
|-
! An.
| rowspan="2;" | ''tong'' <br> 'this' || rowspan="2;" | ''to'' <br> 'that' || rowspan="2;" | ''taz'' <br> 'that' || ''nobuji'' <br> 'who' || ''imbuji'' <br> 'anyone' || ''aubuji'' <br> 'everyone' || ''bujido'' <br> 'someone'
|-
|-
! Inan.  
! Inan.  
| ''nohez'' <br> 'what' || ''inohez'' || ''auhez'' || ''heddo''
| ''nohez'' <br> 'what' || ''inhez'' <br> 'anything' || ''auhez'' <br> 'everything' || ''heddo'' <br> 'something'
|-
! Masc.
| ''nogyong'' || ''inogyong'' || ''augyong'' || ''gyondo''
|-
! Fem.
| ''nodeme'' || ''inodeme'' || ''audeme'' || ''demedo''
|-
! Mid.
| ''nosha'' || ''inosha'' || ''awasha'' || ''ashado''
|-
|-
! Place
! Place
| ''nosuki'' <br> 'where' || ''inosuki'' || ||
| ''tonsuki'' <br> 'here' || ''tosuki'' <br> 'there' || ''tassuki'' <br> 'there' || ''nosuki'' <br> 'where' || ''insuki'' <br> 'anywhere' || ''ausuki'' <br> 'everywhere' || ''sukido'' 'somewhere'
|-
|-
! Manner  
! Manner  
| ''nobide'' <br> 'how' || ''inobide'' || ||  
| ''tombye'' <br> 'like this' || ''tobye'' <br> 'like that' || ''tabbye'' <br> 'like that' || ''nobye'' <br> 'how' || ''imbye'' <br> 'anyhow' || ''aubye'' <br> 'every way' || ''byedo'' <br> 'somehow'
|-
|-
! Time
! Time
| ''nobeng'' <br>  'when' || ''inobeng'' || ||
| ''tombeng'' <br> 'now' || ''tobeng'' <br> 'then' || ''tabbeng'' <br> 'then' || ''nobeng'' <br>  'when' || ''imbeng'' <br> 'anytime' || ''aubeng'' <br> 'always' || ''bendo'' <br> 'sometime(s)'
|-
|-
! Cause
! Cause
|  
| ''tongeze'' <br> 'because' ||  || ''tazeze'' <br> 'because' || ''noze'' <br> 'why' || ''ineze'' <br> 'any reason' || ''aweze'' <br> 'all reasons' || ''ezedo'' <br> 'some reason'
|}
|}


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Most Burunko verbs are composed of two elements: a '''main verb''', which contains the semantic information, and an '''auxiliary verb''', which encodes tense, mood and aspectual information. Combining the two creates the following classes:
Burunko has no true finite verb forms and does not mark verbs according to person, number or tense. The current verbal system appears to reflect an earlier periphrastic system using participles and other non-finite forms.
 
All verbs may be described as '''primary''', '''secondary''' or '''compound'''. The base of every verb is taken from a closed class of verbal roots, which sometimes have broad meanings, such as ''DANG'' 'drink; absorb', ZUKI 'hold, have', ''KASH'' 'learn', ''AZ'' 'take'. This root is the only part of a verb that can take derivational or inflexional affixes.
 
Primary verbs are composed of a root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''edang'', ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use.
 
Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and include frequentatives, causatives, applicatives, impersonals etc, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach', ''edanko'' 'sip', ''enaz'' 'steal'.
 
Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech, e.g. ''izimizuki'' 'poke, finger', ''uddang'' 'drink water'. This is a large and highly productive class, in which new verbs can be formed easily. Reduplicated verbs also fall into this category, e.g. ''yazaz'' 'grasp, grab'. Compound verbs don't require the verbal prefix ''E-'', unless the initial element is a verb.


* Aspect: aorist, imperfective or perfective
====Aspect====
* Tense: present or past
Verbs do not show tense, but take suffixes to show aspect:
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical or imperative
* Valency: intransitive, transitive, causative, applicative


====Main Verbs====
* The '''aorist participle''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekash'' 'learn', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is an aspectless form, referring to an action as an abstract, without any reference to time. It is also used as a verbal noun.
Main verbs can be divided into several categories: '''primary''', '''secondary''' and '''compound'''. At the heart of all verbs is a mono- or disyllabic root, which carries the main meaning but cannot occur alone. Here roots are written in capitals to show that they are not words in their own right, e.g. ''ZUKI'' 'touch', ''AZ'' 'take', ''KASH'' 'learn'. Such roots are essentially a closed class. In some instances, a single root may be both nominal and verbal, so ''DANG'' 'to drink' and ''dang'' 'a drink'.  
* The '''imperfective participle''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the aorist, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants in the stem, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual.
* The '''perfective''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the aorist, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration.


Primary verbs are composed of the root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use.
The '''iterative/frequentative''' aspect can be expressed by the secondary ending ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'.  


Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and are also a closed class. The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are:
A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''.  
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see').
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'.
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-ki'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb,, e.g. ''edakaiki'' 'teach someone', ''edapuiki'' 'show someone'.


A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, denoting repeated or intensive action, e.g. ''yedede'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite', ''ebaba'' 'babble, chatter' < ''BA'' 'speak'.  
Reduplicated verbs and those in ''-(i)ko'' form new aorist participles, to which the imperfective and perfective suffixes may be added, e.g. ''ekaiko, ekaikong, ekaikoi''.  


Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech. The initial element may be:
====Valency====
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''xemmang'' 'to name' < ''xeng'' 'name' + ''MANG'' 'give', ''loging'' 'to sleep' < ''lo'' 'sleep' + ''GING'' 'do'. These verbs may take a new object, e.g. ''...''
Verbs may be inherently transitive or intransitive, but are generally marked where they increase or decrease valency.
* an '''adjective''', denoting various senses of being or becoming a state, or to denote the subject's feelings or opinion, e.g. ''futtoz'' 'turn white' < ''fuz'' 'white' + ''TOZ'' 'come', ''ongushi'' 'like, approve of' < ''ong'' 'good' and ''USHI'' 'consider'.
* an '''adverb''' denoting the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''fimiroz'' 'move quickly' < ''fimiro'' 'quickly' + ''OZ'' 'move'; ''yommikei'' 'kick' < ''yommi'' 'with the foot' + ''KEI'' 'strike, hit'.


====Non-Finite Forms====
Valency can be decreased by:
All main verbs, whether primary, secondary or compound, have three non-finite forms:
* '''Object-incorporation''', in which the object noun is added to the front of the verb, replacing E-, e.g. ''uddang'' 'drink water' < ''uz'' 'water' + ''edang'' 'to drink' (compare ''uz-ke edang'' 'to drink water').
** An indirect object can be incorporated with the addition of the applicative suffix ''-gi'', e.g. ''bupundobagi'' 'address a council' (< ''bupundo'' 'people, council' + ''BA'' 'speak' + ''-gi'')
* The '''generic object''' suffix ''-to'' is added to transitive verbs where the direct object is not stated, creating an intransitive e.g. ''ipuito'' 'see', ''ekaito'' 'learn'".
* The '''reciprocal/reflexive''' infix ''-be-'' is added to transitive verbs to indicate that the subject(s) and object(s) are the same, e.g. ''ebekash'' 'teach oneself/each other", ''ebepush'' 'see oneself; see each other, meet'.


* The '''infinitive''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekaiki'' 'teach', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is aspectless form, often called the '''aorist''', referring to an action as an abstract, without and reference to time.
Valency is increased by:
* The '''imperfective participle''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the infinitive, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual.
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see').
* The '''perfective participle''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the infinitive, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration.
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-gi'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb, e.g. ''edakaigi'' 'teach someone', ''ebagi'' 'speak to someone'.


====Auxiliary Verbs====
====Mood====
The auxiliary verbs are primarily used to conjugate the main verbs. ''Yita'' 'be' is used to conjugate intransitive verbs and ''izu'' 'have' is used for transitives. Both verbs have simple and causative forms, which can be affirmative ('is, has') or negative ('is not, has not').  
Mood is primarily denoted by sentence-final particles to express evidentiality, expectation, and other moods. The unmarked verb denotes a general declarative, e.g. ''taz ze uddang'' 's/he drinks water'.  


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Basic Forms for Auxiliary Verbs
|-
! width="100px;" | <big>'''bi'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang bi'' || 's/he drinks water' (because I've seen it)
|-
| Evidential || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has direct experience or knowledge of the fact
|-
! <big>'''kou'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang kou'' || '(I hear) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Reportative || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has received the information from another source
|-
! <big>'''teng'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang teng'' || '(I assume) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Inferential|| colspan="2;" | the speaker assumes that the information is correct based on other factors
|-
! <big>'''ofu'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ofu'' || 'perhaps s/he drinks water'
|-
| Dubitative|| colspan="2;" | suggests uncertainty, lack of facts or doubt
|-
|-
! rowspan="3;"  width="100px;" | Mood !! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Tense !! colspan="2;" | Intransitive !! colspan="2;" | Transitive
! <big>'''ite'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ite'' || 's/he may drink water'
|-
|-
! colspan="2;" | ''yita'' 'be' !! colspan="2;" | ''izu'' 'have'
| Hypothetical|| colspan="2;" | the event may be true or possible
|-
|-
! Aff || Neg || Aff || Neg
! <big>'''eiki'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang eiki'' || 'I wish s/he drank water'
|-
|-
! rowspan="3;" | Realis !! Present
| Desiderative || colspan="2;" | the speaker hopes or wishes something to be the case
| width="100px;" | ''jaite'' || width="100px;" | ''denite'' ||  width="100px;" | ''dozu'' || width="100px;" | ''donuzu''
|-
|-
! Past
! <big>'''ai'''<big>
| ''xiteng'' || ''xiniteng'' || ''xizung'' || ''xinuzung''  
| ''taz ze uddang ai?'' || 'does s/he drink water?'
|-
|-
! Hypothetical
| Interrogative 1 || colspan="2;" | to ask simple, direct yes/no questions
| ''yite'' || ''linite'' || ''lizu'' || ''linuzu''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3;" | Irrealis !! Present
! <big>'''wa'''<big>
| ''deji'' || ''donuji'' || ''daipa'' || ''danoipa''  
| ''taz ze uddang wa?'' || 'does s/he drink water or not?'
|-
|-
! Past
| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions
| ''xijing'' || ''xinujing'' || ''heipang'' || ''henoipang''
|-
|-
! Hypothetical
! <big>'''bis'''<big>
| ''liji'' || ''linuji'' || ''leipa'' || ''lenoipa''  
| ''taz ze uddang wa?'' || 'does s/he drink water or not?'
|-
|-
! colspan="2;" | Imperative
| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions
| ''biite'' || ''benite'' || ''bozu'' || ''bonuzu''
|}
|}


The auxiliary causative differs from the derived causative because it tends to denote actions where the causer intentionally or directly causes the action and implies a degree of force or control, e.g. ''ekash dajaite'' means 'to make someone learn' while ''edakash'' means 'to teach'.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
====Converbs====
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Causative Forms for Auxiliary Verbs
Converbs are non-finite verb forms that occur in conjunction with a main verb to denote a dependent clause.
 
* The '''imperfect''' suffix ''-la'' denotes an action ongoing at the time of the main verb e.g. ''yommyolla nize fuke ipushi'' 'I saw you while walking',
* The '''perfect''' suffix ''-o'' denotes an action completed before the main verb, e.g. ''yommyozo nize fuke ipushi'' 'I saw you after walking', ''lipuo ipush bis'' "go and see!"
* The '''prefaratory''' suffix ''-xipu'' denotes an action begun after the main verb, e.g. ''yommyoshipa nize fuke ipushi'' 'I saw you before walking',
* The '''conditional''' suffix ''-ba'' denotes a condition on which the main verb depends, e.g. ''nize fuke ipuipa nize
* The '''concessive''' suffix ''-are'' means 'although, even though', e.g. ''yommyozare nize fuke ipushi 'although walking, I saw you'
 
====Secondary Verbs====
The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are:
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'.
* The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'.
 
A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''.
 
====Compound Verbs====
The initial element may be:
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''xemmang'' 'to name' < ''xeng'' 'name' + ''MANG'' 'give', ''loging'' 'to sleep' < ''lo'' 'sleep' + ''GING'' 'do'. These verbs may take a new object, e.g. ''...''
* an '''adjective''', denoting various senses of being or becoming a state, or to denote the subject's feelings or opinion, e.g. ''futtoz'' 'turn white' < ''fuz'' 'white' + ''TOZ'' 'come', ''ongushi'' 'like, approve of' < ''ong'' 'good' and ''USHI'' 'consider'.
* an '''adverb''' denoting the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''fimiroz'' 'move quickly' < ''fimiro'' 'quickly' + ''OZ'' 'move'; ''yommikei'' 'kick' < ''yommi'' 'with the foot' + ''KEI'' 'strike, hit'.
 
==Derivation==
Bis Burunko has a highly productive derivational system, primarily based on suffixes.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"  
! width="100px;" | Suffix !! width="300px;" | Meaning !! width="100;" | Added To !! width="300;" | Examples
|-
! colspan="4;" | Nouns
|-
| ''-ai'' || augmentative, honorific (mid.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-aro'' || "time, season, right time" || n, adj, vn ||
|-
| ''-ba, -be'' || kinship suffix denoting primary line || n ||
|-
| ''-do'' || collective || n ||
|-
| ''-ez'' || augmentative, honorific (fem.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-fo'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-ji'' || (domesticated) animal || n, adj ||
|-
|-
! rowspan="3;"  width="100px;" | Mood !! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Tense !! colspan="2;" | Intransitive !! colspan="2;" | Transitive
| ''-jing'' || "period of time, age, era" || n, adj, v ||  
|-
|-
! colspan="2;" | ''yita'' 'be' !! colspan="2;" | ''izu'' 'have'
| ''-ko<sup><small>1</small></sup>'' || "thing for, connected with" || n ||
|-
|-
! Aff || Neg || Aff || Neg
| ''-ko<sup><small>2</small></sup>'' || diminutive || n ||  
|-
|-
! rowspan="3;" | Realis !! Present
| ''-mi'' || diminutive || n ||  
| width="100px;" | ''dajaite'' || width="100px;" | ''dadenite'' || width="100px;" | ''dadozu'' || width="100px;" | ''dadonuzu''
|-
|-
! Past
| ''-ni, -ng'' || agent || v ||  
| ''hejaiteng'' || ''hedeniteng'' || ''hedozung'' || ''hedonuzung''
|-
|-
! Hypothetical
| ''-o'' || instrument, tool || v ||
| ''lejaite'' || ''ledenite'' || ''ledozu'' || ''ledonuzu''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3;" | Irrealis !! Present
| ''-osh'' || augmentative, honorific (masc.) || n, adj ||
| ''dadeji'' || ''dadonuji'' || ''dadaipa'' || ''dadanoipa''
|-
|-
! Past
| ''-pung'' || "having" || n ||
| ''hedejing'' || ''hedonujing'' || ''hedaipang'' || ''hedanoipang''
|-
|-
! Hypothetical
| ''-taz, -daz''* || "person/thing from" || n ||  
| ''ledeji'' || ''ledonuji'' || ''ledaipa'' || ''ledanoipa''
|-
|-
! colspan="2;" | Imperative
| ''-te, -de''* || "(short) stretch of time, period" || n || ''araite'' "nighttime"
| ''bajaite'' || ''badenite'' || ''badozu'' || ''badonuzu''  
|}
 
====Periphrastic Conjugation====
The combination of tense, aspect and mood information encoded in the various forms of main and auxiliary verbs gives the following verb forms:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan="3;"  width="150px;" | Aspect !! colspan="4;" | Tense/Mood
| ''-teng, -deng''* || diminutive || n ||  
|-
|-
! colspan="4;" | Realis
| ''-to<sup><small>1</small></sup>, -do''* || instrument, tool || n, v, adj
|-
|-
! width="150px;" | Present !! width="150px;" | Past !! width="150px;" | Hypothetical !! width="150px;" | Imperative
| ''-to<sup><small>2</small></sup>'' || diminutive  || n ||
|-
|-
! Aorist
| ''-yo'' || kinship suffix denoting 2 removed from ego || n ||  
| Stative Present || Stative Past || Stative Hypothetical || Imperative
|-
|-
! Imperfective
! colspan="4;" | Adjective
| Present || Past || Present Hypothetical
!  rowspan="2;" |
|-
|-
! Perfective
| ''-chi, -ji''* || "of, like, pertaining to; characteristic of" || n || ''demechi'' "female, feminine"
| Recent Past || Distant Past || Past Hypothetical
|-
|-
! || colspan="4;" | Irrealis
| ''-king'' || "tending to, fond of" || n, v ||
|-
|-
! !! Present !! Past !! Hypothetical !! rowspan="4;" |  
| ''-ko'' || "related to, characteristic of" || n ||  
|-
|-
! Aorist
! colspan="4;" | Adverbs
| Present Potential || Past Potential || Conditional
|-
|-
! Imperfective
| ''-mi'' || means, method || n || ''yommi'' "with the foot"
| || || Present Conditional
|-
|-
! Perfective
| ''-ro'' || manner || adj || ''fimiro'' "quickly"
| || || Past Conditional
|}
|}
Notes on the tenses:
* The '''Stative Present''' or '''Gnomic''' is used to make general statements. With stative verbs it refers to existing states (e.g. 'fire is hot') and with action verbs it refers to general truths (e.g. 'birds sing').
* The '''Stative Past'''


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
* [[Bis Burunko/Vocabulary| General Vocabulary]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age | Gender and Age]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Kinship | Kinship]]
===Gender Terms===
===Gender Terms===
Gender terms for humans and gods are partly based on the individual's age. Burung society sees life divided into four ages:
Gender terms for humans and gods are partly based on the individual's age. Burung society sees life divided into four ages:
Psammead
803

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