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Bis Burunko: Difference between revisions
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===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
Burunko verbs | Burunko has no true finite verb forms and does not mark verbs according to person, number or tense. The current verbal system appears to reflect an earlier periphrastic system using participles and other non-finite forms. | ||
All verbs may be described as '''primary''', '''secondary''' or '''compound'''. The base of every verb is taken from a closed class of verbal roots, which sometimes have broad meanings, such as ''DANG'' 'drink; absorb', ZUKI 'hold, have', ''KASH'' 'learn', ''AZ'' 'take'. This root is the only part of a verb that can take derivational or inflexional affixes. | |||
Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and | Primary verbs are composed of a root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''edang'', ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use. | ||
Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and include frequentatives, causatives, applicatives, impersonals etc, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach', ''edanko'' 'sip', ''enaz'' 'steal'. | |||
Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech, e.g. ''izimizuki'' 'poke, finger', ''uddang'' 'drink water'. This is a large and highly productive class, in which new verbs can be formed easily. Reduplicated verbs also fall into this category, e.g. ''yazaz'' 'grasp, grab'. Compound verbs don't require the verbal prefix ''E-'', unless the initial element is a verb. | |||
====Aspect==== | ====Aspect==== | ||
Verbs do not show tense, but take suffixes to show aspect: | Verbs do not show tense, but take suffixes to show aspect: | ||
* The '''aorist''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekash'' 'learn', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is aspectless form, referring to an action as an abstract, without any reference to time. | * The '''aorist participle''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekash'' 'learn', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is an aspectless form, referring to an action as an abstract, without any reference to time. It is also used as a verbal noun. | ||
* The '''imperfective''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the | * The '''imperfective participle''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the aorist, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants in the stem, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual. | ||
* The '''perfective''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the | * The '''perfective''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the aorist, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration. | ||
The '''iterative/frequentative''' aspect can be expressed by the secondary ending ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'. | |||
A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''. | |||
Reduplicated verbs and those in ''-(i)ko'' form new aorist participles, to which the imperfective and perfective suffixes may be added, e.g. ''ekaiko, ekaikong, ekaikoi''. | |||
====Valency==== | |||
Verbs may be inherently transitive or intransitive, but are generally marked where they increase or decrease valency. | |||
Valency can be decreased by: | |||
* '''Object-incorporation''', in which the object noun is added to the front of the verb, replacing E-, e.g. ''uddang'' 'drink water' < ''uz'' 'water' + ''edang'' 'to drink' (compare ''uz-ke edang'' 'to drink water'). | |||
** An indirect object can be incorporated with the addition of the applicative suffix ''-gi'', e.g. ''bupundobagi'' 'address a council' (< ''bupundo'' 'people, council' + ''BA'' 'speak' + ''-gi'') | |||
* The '''generic object''' suffix ''-to'' is added to transitive verbs where the direct object is not stated, creating an intransitive e.g. ''ipuito'' 'see', ''ekaito'' 'learn'". | |||
* The '''reciprocal/reflexive''' infix ''-be-'' is added to transitive verbs to indicate that the subject(s) and object(s) are the same, e.g. ''ebekash'' 'teach oneself/each other", ''ebepush'' 'see oneself; see each other, meet'. | |||
Valency is increased by: | |||
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see'). | |||
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-gi'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb, e.g. ''edakaigi'' 'teach someone', ''ebagi'' 'speak to someone'. | |||
====Mood==== | ====Mood==== | ||
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| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions | | Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Converbs==== | |||
Converbs are non-finite verb forms that occur in conjunction with a main verb to denote a dependent clause. | |||
* The '''imperfect''' suffix ''-la'' denotes an action ongoing at the time of the main verb e.g. ''yommyolla nize fuke ipushi'' 'I saw you while walking', | |||
* The '''perfect''' suffix ''-o'' denotes an action completed before the main verb, e.g. ''yommyozo nize fuke ipushi'' 'I saw you after walking', ''lipuo ipush bis'' "go and see!" | |||
* The '''prefaratory''' suffix ''-xipu'' denotes an action begun after the main verb, e.g. ''yommyoshipa nize fuke ipushi'' 'I saw you before walking', | |||
* The '''conditional''' suffix ''-ba'' denotes a condition on which the main verb depends, e.g. ''nize fuke ipuipa nize | |||
* The '''concessive''' suffix ''-are'' means 'although, even though', e.g. ''yommyozare nize fuke ipushi 'although walking, I saw you' | |||
====Secondary Verbs==== | ====Secondary Verbs==== | ||
The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are: | The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are: | ||
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'. | * The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'. | ||
* The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'. | * The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'. | ||
A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''. | A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''. | ||
====Compound Verbs==== | ====Compound Verbs==== | ||