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*'''CS''' (circumflex stative) – fixed circumflex accent (tone-2) or grave accent (tone-3) on any syllable. For neuter stems it is the final syllable, while for all other genders it is typically the first or the second syllable.
*'''CS''' (circumflex stative) – fixed circumflex accent (tone-2) or grave accent (tone-3) on any syllable. For neuter stems it is the final syllable, while for all other genders it is typically the first or the second syllable.
*'''M''' (mobile) – the pitch (tone-2 or tone-3) alternates between final and non-final (usually initial) position.
*'''M''' (mobile) – the pitch (tone-2 or tone-3) alternates between final and non-final (usually initial) position.
The pitch accent is an important part of Carpathian morphology, since some noun cases are only distinct by their accent: ''rasā̃s'' [rɑ́.ˈsɑ̀ːs] “of dew (genitive case)”, ''ràsās'' [ˈrɑ̀.sɑ̀ːs] “dews (nominative case)”. Some words differ only in their accent paradigm: ''káltas'' “gouge” (from ''káltei'' “to strike”), '''AS'''-class and ''kal̃tas'' “obliged” (from ''kelḗtei'' “to be obliged”), '''M'''-class.
==Classes==
==Classes==
There are seven main stem classes in Carpathian, being defined by their specific case endings: ''a''-stem, ''u''-stem, ''i''-stem ''ā''-stem, ''ī''-stem, ''ū''-stem, and consonant-stem, the latter consisting of several subclasses. The following tables are examples of Carpathian noun-class paradigms. The example words belong to the M-paradigm, because the pitch pattern of the other two paradigms is predictable.
There are seven main stem classes in Carpathian, being defined by their specific case endings: ''a''-stem, ''u''-stem, ''i''-stem ''ā''-stem, ''ī''-stem, ''ū''-stem, and consonant-stem, the latter consisting of several subclasses. The following tables are examples of Eastern Carpathian noun-class paradigms, Western Carpathian has the same noun classes, so for the sake of brevity only the Eastern forms are shown. The example words belong to the M-paradigm, because the pitch pattern of the other two paradigms is predictable.
===''a''-stem nouns ===
There are two subclasses: masculine "as"-nouns (''deiwas'' “god”) and neuter "a"-nouns (''àzera'' “lake”). In some dialects the nominative singular of the "as"-nouns is stressed, e.g. ''deiwàs'' instead of standard ''deĩwas'', the latter being an innovation. In dialects the dative singular and the instrumental plural have the "ui"-diphthong instead of standard ''ai'': ''deiwúi'' and ''deiwúis'' respectively. This is common for both Western and Eastern dialects and predate the original split.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical case|Case]]
! colspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
! colspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
! colspan="2" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]
|-
![[w:Grammatical gender|Masculine]]
![[w:Grammatical gender|Neuter]]
!Masculine
!Neuter
!Masculine
!Neuter
|-
![[w:Nominative case|Nominative]]
|''deĩwas''
|''àzera''
|''deĩwū''
|''àzerai''
|''deĩwai''
|''azerā̃''
|-
![[w:Genitive case|Genitive]]
|''deĩwā''
|''àzerā''
|''deiwáu''
|''azeráu''
|''deiwū̃n''
|''azerū̃n''
|-
![[w:Dative case|Dative]]
|''deiwái''
|''azerái''
|''deiwamā̃''
|''azeramā̃''
|''deiwàmas''
|''azeràmas''
|-
![[w:Accusative case|Accusative]]
|''deĩwun''
|''àzerun''
|''deĩwū''
|''àzerai''
|''deĩwōnas''
|''azerā̃''
|-
![[w:Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
|''deĩwū''
|''àzerū''
|''deiwamā̃''
|''azeramā̃''
|''deiwáis''
|''azeráis''
|-
![[w:Locative case|Locative]]
|''deĩwai''
|''àzerai''
|''deiwáu''
|''azeráu''
|''deiwáišu''
|''azeráišu''
|-
![[w:Vocative case|Vocative]]
|''deĩwe''
|''àzera''
|''deĩwū''
|''àzerai''
|''deiwaĩ''
|''azerā̃''
|}
 
===''ā''-stem nouns ===
The "ā"-stem nouns are feminine. An example of this class is ''rasā'' “dew”. The Western dialects have tone-2 in the M-type nouns, while the Eastern dialects keep the original tone-1 (Western ''rasā̃'' Eastern ''rasā́''). Tone-1 was analogically eliminated from the M-paradigm in most Western Carpathian dialects, being replaced by circumflex, thus being restricted to the AS-type exclusively.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
!colspan = "3"|[[w:Grammatical gender|Feminine]]
|-
!Nominative
|''rasā́''
|''ràsāi''
|''ràsās''
|-
!Genitive
|''rasā̃s''
|''rasáu''
|''rasū̃n''
|-
!Dative
|''rasái''
|''rasā́mā''
|''rasā́mas''
|-
!Accusative
|''ràsān''
|''rasái''
|''ràsānas''
|-
!Instrumental
|''rasā́n''
|''rasā́mā''
|''rasā́mīs''
|-
!Locative
|''rasái''
|''rasáu''
|''rasā́su''
|-
!Vocative
|''ràsa''
|''rasái''
|''rasás''
|}
 
===''i''-stem nouns ===
There are two subclasses: common "is"-stem (''angilis'' “coal”), and neuter "i"-stem (''mari'' “sea”). The "i"-stem class consists of a few words and is obsolete in most dialects, being replaced by either "a"-stem (''maria'') or "is"-stem (''maris'').
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Dual
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Common
!Neuter
!Common
!Neuter
!Common
!Neuter
|-
!Nominative
|''angilìs''
|''marì''
|''ànglī''
|''màrī''
|''àngiliīs''
|''màriī''
|-
!Genitive
|''angiléis''
|''maréis''
|''angiliáu''
|''mariáu''
|''angiliū̃n''
|''mariū̃n''
|-
!Dative
|''àngilei''
|''màrei''
|''angilimā̃''
|''marimā̃''
|''angilìmas''
|''marìmas''
|-
!Accusative
|''àngilin''
|''màrin''
|''ànglī''
|''màrī''
|''àngilins''
|''màrī''
|-
!Instrumental
|''angilimì''
|''marimì''
|''angilimā̃''
|''marimā̃''
|''angilìmīs''
|''marìmīs''
|-
!Locative
|''angiléi''
|''maréi''
|''angiliáu''
|''mariáu''
|''angilišù''
|''marišù''
|-
!Vocative
|''ànglei''
|''màri''
|''ànglī''
|''màrī''
|''àngiliīs''
|''màriī''
|}
===''u''-stem nouns ===
There are two subclasses: masculine "us"-stem (''ledus'' “ice”) and neuter "u"-stem (''medu'' “honey”). The neuter "u"-nouns are rare, but still present in all dialects, unlike the corresponding "i"-nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Dual
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Masculine
!Neuter
!Masculine
!Neuter
!Masculine
!Neuter
|-
!Nominative
|''ledùs''
|''medù''
|''lèdū''
|''mèdwī''
|''lèdawis''
|''mèdū''
|-
!Genitive
|''ledáus''
|''medáus''
|''ledwáu''
|''medwáu''
|''ledū̃n''
|''medū̃n''
|-
!Dative
|''lèdawei''
|''mèdawei''
|''ledumā̃''
|''medumā̃''
|''ledùmas''
|''medùmas''
|-
!Accusative
|''lèdun''
|''mèdun''
|''lèdū''
|''mèdwī''
|''lèduns''
|''mèdū''
|-
!Instrumental
|''ledumì''
|''medumì''
|''ledumā̃''
|''medumā̃''
|''ledùmīs''
|''medùmīs''
|-
!Locative
|''ledáu''
|''medáu''
|''ledwáu''
|''medwáu''
|''ledušù''
|''medušù''
|-
!Vocative
|''lèdau''
|''mèdu!''
|''lèdū''
|''mèdwī!''
|''lèdawes''
|''mèdū''
|}
 
===''ī''-stem nouns ===
The "ī"-stem nouns are feminine. An example of this class is ''martī'' “married woman”. The "ī"-class consist of primarily deadjectival nouns of state or condition, as well as some old feminine noun forms, such as the example noun, as well as the Slavic borrowing ''pānī'' (from Polish ''pani'' “Mrs”). The last root consonant is palatalised in oblique cases, unless the consonant is labial or glottal.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
!colspan = "3"|[[w:Grammatical gender|Feminine]]
|-
!Nominative
|''martī́''
|''màrtī''
|''màrtīs''
|-
!Genitive
|''martiā̃s''
|''martiáu''
|''martiū̃n''
|-
!Dative
|''martiái''
|''martiā́mā''
|''martiā́mas''
|-
!Accusative
|''màrtīn''
|''martī́''
|''màrtīnis''
|-
!Instrumental
|''martiā́''
|''martiā́mā''
|''martiā́mīs''
|-
!Locative
|''martiái''
|''martiáu''
|''martiā́su''
|-
!Vocative
|''màrtia''
|''màrtī''
|''màrtīs''
|}
 
===''ū''-stem nouns===
The "ū"-stem nouns are feminine. An example of this class is ''burū'' “eyebrow”. The class consist of mostly abstract nouns, derived from adjectives or verbal nouns, as well as old inanimate nouns, such as ''lakū'' “lake”. Most of these nouns became ''is''-stem in modern Carpathian (Western Carpathian ''lokwis'' “pond”).
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
!colspan = "3"|[[w:Grammatical gender|Feminine]]
|-
!Nominative
|''burū́''
|''bùrwai''
|''bùrwis''
|-
!Genitive
|''burwìs''
|''burwáu''
|''burwū̃n''
|-
!Dative
|''burwéi''
|''burwimā̃''
|''burwìmas''
|-
!Accusative
|''bùrwin''
|''bùrū''
|''bùrwins''
|-
!Instrumental
|''burwī́''
|''burwimā̃''
|''burwìmīs''
|-
!Locative
|''burwái''
|''burwáu''
|''burwìšu''
|-
!Vocative
|''bùrwa''
|''bùrwai''
|''bùrwis''
|}
===''consonant''-stem nouns ===
There are several subclasses, divided into masculine (''wadū'' “water”, although its dual and plural forms are not used, so only the endings are shown), feminine (''duktī'' “daughter”) and neuter (''immī'' “name”). The individual subclasses are classified according to the stem consonant or consonant cluster: ''n''-stem, ''s''-stem, ''nt''-stem and ''r''-stem. The endings are the same for all subclasses, except for the nominative singular, which is different for every subclass.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Dual
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!Masculine
!Feminine
!Neuter
!Masculine
!Feminine
!Neuter
!Masculine
!Feminine
!Neuter
|-
!Nominative
|''wadū̃''
|''duktī̃''
|''immī̃''
|''-eCī''
|''dùkterī''
|''ìmmenī''
|''-eCis''
|''dùkteris''
|''immenā̃''
|-
!Genitive
|''wadenìs''
|''dukterìs''
|''immenìs''
|''-eCáu''
|''dukteráu''
|''immenáu''
|''-eCū̃n''
|''dukterū̃n''
|''immenū̃n''
|-
!Dative
|''wàdenei''
|''dùkterei''
|''ìmmenei''
|''-eCemā́''
|''dukterimā́''
|''immenimā́''
|''-eCamàs''
|''dukterimàs''
|''immenimàs''
|-
!Accusative
|''wàdenin''
|''dùkterin''
|''ìmmenin''
|''-eCī''
|''dùkterī''
|''ìmmenī''
|''-eCins''
|''dùkterins''
|''immenā̃''
|-
!Instrumental
|''wadenimì''
|''dukterimì''
|''immenī́''
|''-eCemā́''
|''dukterimā́''
|''immenimā́''
|''-eCimī̃s''
|''dukterimī̃s''
|''immenimī̃s''
|-
!Locative
|''wàdeni''
|''dùkteri''
|''wàdeni''
|''-eCáu''
|''dukteráu''
|''immenáu''
|''-eCišù''
|''dukterišù''
|''immenišù''
|-
!Vocative
|''wàdene''
|''dùktera''
|''ìmmena''
|''-eCī''
|''dùkterī''
|''ìmmenī''
|''-eCis''
|''dùkteris''
|''immenā̃''
|}
*The letter '''C''' in the table above represents a consonant that defines the subclass: ''n'', ''nt'', ''s'' or ''r''.
 
==Possession==
The category of [[w:Possession (linguistics)|possession]] is indicated with possessive [[w:Possessive affix|affixes]]. The number of possessors and their person can be distinguished in both suffixes and prefixes. The prefixes are used with nouns that have no other prefixes attached, while in case, when a noun has at least one prefix, suffixes are used instead, for example: '''''mi'''damas'' “my house”, ''pasatiā'''ti''''' “your story”. Just as pronouns, the possessive suffixes distinguish between the more salient and the less salient argument of a sentence, also called [[w:Obviative|fourth person]]. For instance both ''“widēji māterinsi” and “widēji māterinii”'' mean “he/she saw their mother”, but in the first sentence the person saw their own mother, while in the second sentence the person saw someone else’s mother. The sentence ''Martā Marijai atandōdesa paislanna'' “Martha gave Mary her pen” is not ambiguous in Carpathian (the ''-na'' suffix indicates, that it was Maria’s pen, not Martha’s). All Carpathian possessive affixes are represented in the table below:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2| [[w:Grammatical person|Person]]
! colspan=3| Prefixes
! colspan=3| Suffixes
! rowspan=2| Meaning
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !!  Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
| 1st person || ''mi-'' || ''nō-'' || ''na-'' || ''-mi'' || ''-nū'' || ''-nas'' || my, our
|-
| 2nd person || ''ti-'' || ''wō-'' || ''wa-'' || ''-ti'' || ''-(j)ū'' || ''-was'' || your
|-
| 3rd person<br>Animate || ''ji(s)-''|| ''jī(s)-'' || ''ei(s)- || ''-(j)i''|| ''-(j)ī'' || ''-(j)eis'' || their (proximate)
|-
| 3rd person<br>Inanimate || ''ši(s)-'' || ''šī(s)-'' || ''šai(s)-'' || ''-ši'' || ''-šī'' || ''-šei'' || its (proximate)
|-
| 3rd person<br>Animate || ''an-'' || ''nō-'' || ''nai-'' || ''-na'' || ''-nī'' || ''-nais'' || their (obviate)
|-
| 3rd person<br>Inanimate || ''ta-'' || ''tō-'' || ''tai-'' || ''-ta'' || ''-tī'' || ''-tais'' || its (obviate)
|-
| Reflexive || colspan=3| ''si-'' || colspan=3| ''-sis'' || own
|-
|}
Certain case endings change their form, when used with possessive suffixes: ''samsēd'''ū''''' “two neighbours” and ''samsēd'''ū'''''n “of neighbours”, but ''samsēd'''ō'''jī'' “their two neighbours” and ''samsēd'''ō'''nī'' “of their neighbours”.


[[Category:Carpathian]]
[[Category:Carpathian]]
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