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*Original velars became alveolar/dental fricatives/affricates before /i/ and postalveolar fricatives/affricates before /e/.
*Original velars became alveolar/dental fricatives/affricates before /i/ and postalveolar fricatives/affricates before /e/.
**This is because palatalization before /i/ and before /e/ occurred separately at different times.
**This is because palatalization before /i/ and before /e/ occurred separately at different times.
*Original /t/ and /d/ before /j/ became affricates.
*Original /s/ before /j/ became /ʃ/.
*Original labiovelars became plain velars in all positions.
*Original labiovelars became plain velars in all positions.
*Innovated hard/soft consonant distinction.
*Innovated hard/soft consonant distinction.
*Glide ''v-'' inserted before word-initial ''o-'' (long or short).
*Original glide ''w-'' (modern ''h-'') inserted before word-initial ''o-'' and ''u-'' (long or short).
*Glide ''j-'' inserted before word-initial ''e-'' and ''i-'' (long or short).
*Glide ''j-'' inserted before word-initial ''e-'' and ''i-'' (long or short).
*Original ''au'' preserved as a diphthong.
*Original ''au'' preserved as a diphthong.
*Original ''ae'' merged with long ''e'' in most cases, but was kept distinct in 1st declension noun inflectional endings (later merged in pronunciation but without palatalization).
*Original ''ae'' merged with long ''e'' in most cases, but was kept distinct in 1st declension noun inflectional endings (later merged in pronunciation but without palatalization).
**This may have actually been through an intermediate phase ''-āī'' rather than descending directly from Classical Latin ''-ae''.
**This may have actually been through an intermediate phase ''-āī'' rather than descending directly from Classical Latin ''-ae''.
*Original ''oe'' merged with long ''e'' in all cases.
*Original ''oe'' was preserved longer, but eventually merged with ''e'' but without palatalization. Initially, it is preceded with ''h-''.
 
*Cluster simplification:
**/ps/ to /s(ː)/
**/kt/ and /pt/ to /t(ː)/
**/ks/ to /ʃ(ː)/
====Grammatical====
====Grammatical====
*Preserves case inflection.
*Preserves case inflection.
Line 109: Line 114:
|i
|i
|[ɪ]
|[ɪ]
|/jɪ/ word-initially.
|
|-
|-
|ī
|ī
|rowspan="2"|[iː]
|rowspan="2"|[iː]
|rowspan="2"|/jiː/ word-initially.
|rowspan="2"|
|-
|-
|į
|į
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|y
|y
|[ɪ]
|[ɪ]
|rowspan="2"|Used to represent unpalatalized /ɪ/ and /iː/ in loanwords (especially word-initially).
|rowspan="2"|Used to represent non-palatalizing /ɪ/ and /iː/ in loanwords.
|-
|-
|ȳ
|ȳ
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|au
|au
|[ɐʊ̯]
|[ɐʊ̯]
|
|-
|ei
|[ɛɪ̯]
|
|
|-
|-
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|
|
|-
|-
|oi
|[ɔɪ̯]
|
|-
|ou
|[ɔʊ̯]
|
|-
|ui
|[ʊɪ̯]
|
|}
|}
{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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|-
|-
|h
|h
|{{IPA|ɦ}}
|{{IPA|ɦ}}; {{IPA|ɣ}}¹
|{{IPA|ɣʲ}}
|{{IPA|ɣʲ}}
|-
|-
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|{{IPA|ʑ}}
|{{IPA|ʑ}}
|}
|}
¹ Adjacent to consonants.
Consonants are always palatalized (soft) before ⟨e, ē, ę, i, ī, į⟩.
Consonants are always palatalized (soft) before ⟨e, ē, ę, i, ī, į⟩.
Before ⟨a, ā, ą, æ, o, ō, ǫ, u, ū, ų⟩, palatalization is denoted by inserting an ⟨i⟩ between the consonant and the vowel.
Before ⟨a, ā, ą, æ, o, ō, ǫ, u, ū, ų⟩, palatalization is denoted by inserting an ⟨i⟩ between the consonant and the vowel.
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===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
Stress generally follows Classical Latin rules.
Stress generally follows Classical Latin rules. However, contracted forms retain stress on the same syllable that is stressed in the corresponding uncontracted form, or on the syllable it is absorbed into.
<!--
<!--
Stress may be on any of the last three syllables of a word.  
Stress may be on any of the last three syllables of a word.  
Line 315: Line 337:
-->
-->
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Citation form: ''nom. sg., gen. sg.''
====First declension====
====First declension====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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|-
|-
! nominative
! nominative
| ''-a'' || ''-æ''
| ''-(i)a'' || ''-(i)æ''
|-
|-
! genitive
! genitive
| ''-æ'' || ''-ārų''
| ''-(i)æ'' || ''-(i)ārų''
|-
|-
! dative
! dative
| ''-æ'' || ''-āvīs''
| ''-(i)æ'' || ''-(i)āvīs, -(i)ais''
|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-ą'' || ''-ās''
| ''-(i)ą'' || ''-(i)ās''
|-
|-
! locative
! ablative
| ''-ā'' || ''-āvīs''
| ''-(i)ā'' || ''-(i)āvīs, -(i)ais''
|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
| ''-a'' || ''-æ''
| ''-(i)a'' || ''-(i)æ''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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| colspan="2"|''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ōs'' || ''-(i)a''
| colspan="2"|''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ōs'' || ''-(i)a''
|-
|-
! locative
! ablative
| colspan="2"| ''-(i)ō'' || colspan="2"| ''-īs''
| colspan="2"| ''-(i)ō'' || colspan="2"| ''-īs''
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|}
|}
====Third declension====
====Third declension====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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|-
|-
! nominative
! nominative
| colspan="2"| (various) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| colspan="2"| (various) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
! genitive
! genitive
| colspan="2"| ''-is'' || colspan="2"| ''-(i)ų''
| colspan="2"| ''-is'' || colspan="2"| ''-ių''
|-
|-
! dative
! dative
| colspan="2"| ''-ī'' || colspan="2"| ''-ivīs''
| colspan="2"| ''-ī'' || colspan="2"| ''-ivīs, -īs''
|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-ę'' || (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| ''-ę'' || (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
! locative
! ablative
| colspan="2"| ''-e'' || colspan="2"| ''-ivīs''
| colspan="2"| ''-e'' || colspan="2"| ''-ivīs, -īs''
|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
| colspan="2"| (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| colspan="2"| (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
|}
|}
====Fourth declension====
====Fourth declension====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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|-
|-
! nominative
! nominative
| ''-us'' || ''-ū'' || ''-ūs'' || ''-uva''
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)u'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
|-
|-
! genitive
! genitive
| colspan="2"| ''-uvis, -ūs'' || colspan="2"| ''-uvų, -ų''
| colspan="2"| ''-(i)uvis, -(i)ūs'' || colspan="2"| ''-(i)uvų, -(i)ų''
|-
|-
! dative
! dative
| colspan="2"| ''-uvī, -ui'' || colspan="2"| ''-uvīs''
| colspan="2"| ''-(i)uvī, -(i)ui'' || colspan="2"| ''-(i)uvīs, -(i)uis''
|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-ų'' || ''-ū'' || ''-ūs'' || ''-uva''
| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)u'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
|-
|-
! locative
! ablative
| colspan="2"| ''-ū'' || colspan="2"| ''-uvīs''
| colspan="2"| ''-(i)ū'' || colspan="2"| ''-(i)uvīs, -(i)uis''
|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
| ''-us'' || ''-ū'' || ''-ūs'' || ''-uva''
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)u'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! dative
! dative
| ''-ei'' || ''-ēvīs''
| ''-ei'' || ''-ēvīs, -eis''
|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-ę'' || ''-ēs''
| ''-ę'' || ''-ēs''
|-
|-
! locative
! ablative
| ''-ē'' || ''-ēvīs''
| ''-ē'' || ''-ēvīs, -eis''
|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
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===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
====Personal pronouns====
'''Note:''' The cases have been reordered for convenience, since nominative & accusative forms are often identical as are dative & locative. The vocative has been excluded since it is always identical to the nominative.
'''Notes:'''  
 
¹ The cases have been reordered for convenience, since nominative & accusative forms are often identical as are dative & ablative. The vocative has been excluded since it is always identical to the nominative except in the 3SM, where it is ''jisse''.
 
² In addition to undeclined genitives, personal pronouns have declined possessive forms.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Personal pronouns
|+ Personal pronouns
! Person !! Number !! Gender !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Locative
! Person !! Number !! Gender !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive !! Possessive !! Dative !! Ablative
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1 !! sg. !! all
! rowspan="2" | 1 !! sg. !! all
| jehō || mē || mejus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | mivī  
| ''jehō'' || ''mē'' || ''mejī, mei'' || ''mejus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''mivī, mī''
|-
|-
! pl. !! all
! pl. !! all
| colspan="2" | nōs || nostrus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | nōvīs
| colspan="2" | ''nōs'' || ''nostrī'' || ''nostrus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''nōvīs, nois''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2 !! sg. !! all
! rowspan="2" | 2 !! sg. !! all
| tū || tē || tuvus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | tivī
| ''tū'' || ''tē'' || ''tuvī, tui'' || ''tuvus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''tivī, tī''
|-
|-
! pl. !! all
! pl. !! all
| colspan="2" | vōs || vostrus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | vōvīs
| colspan="2" | ''vōs'' || ''vostrī'' ||''vostrus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''vōvīs, vois''
|-
|-
! rowspan="6" | 3 !! rowspan="3"|sg. !! m.
! rowspan="6" | 3 !! rowspan="3"|sg. !! m.
| isse || issų || issījus, -a, -ų || issui || issī
| ''jissus'' || ''jissų'' || ''jissījus''|| ''jissījus, -a, -ų'' || ''jissī'' || ''jissō''
|-
|-
! f.
! f.
| issa || issą || issējus, -a, -ų || issei || issæ
| ''jissa'' || ''jissą'' || ''jissījus''|| ''jissījus, -a, -ų'' || ''jissī'' || ''jissā''
|-
|-
! n.
! n.
| colspan="2" | issut || issījus, -a, -ų || issui || issī
| colspan="2" | ''jissud'' || ''jissījus''||''jissījus, -a, -ų'' || ''jissī'' || ''jissō''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3"|pl. !! m.
! rowspan="3"|pl. !! m.
| issī || issōs || issōrus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | issīs
| ''jissī'' || ''jissōs'' || ''jissōrų''||''jissōrus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''jissīs''
|-
|-
! f.
! f.
| issæ || issās || issārus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | issāvīs
| ''jissæ'' || ''jissās'' || ''jissārų''||''jissārus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''jissīs''
|-
|-
! n.
! n.
| colspan="2" | issa || issōrus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | issīs
| colspan="2" | ''jissa'' || ''jissījus''||''jissōrų, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''jissīs''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Reflexive !! all
! colspan="2" | Reflexive !! all
| – || sē || suvus, -a, -ų || colspan="2" | sivī
| – || ''sē'' || ''suvī, sui'' ||''suvus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''sivī, sī''
|-
|}
 
====Demonstrative pronouns====
{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Near demonstrative
! rowspan="2"| Case !! colspan="3"| Singular !! colspan="3"| Plural
|-
! m. !! f. !! n. !! m. !! f. !! n.
|-
! Nominative
| ''jistus'' || ''jista'' || ''jistud'' || ''jistī'' || ''jistæ'' || ''jista''
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| ''jistījus'' || ''jistōrų'' || ''jistārų'' || ''jistōrų''
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| ''jistī'' || colspan="3"|''jistīs''
|-
! Accusative
| ''jistų'' || ''jistą'' || ''jistud''|| ''jistōs'' || ''jistās'' || ''jista''
|-
! Ablative
| ''jistō'' || ''jistā'' || ''jistō''|| colspan="3"| ''jistīs''
|-
! Vocative
| ''jiste'' || ''jista'' || ''jistud'' || ''jistī'' || ''jistæ'' || ''jista''
|-
|}
{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Far demonstrative
! rowspan="2"| Case !! colspan="3"| Singular !! colspan="3"| Plural
|-
! m. !! f. !! n. !! m. !! f. !! n.
|-
! Nominative
| ''jillus'' || ''jilla'' || ''jillud'' || ''jillī'' || ''jillæ'' || ''jilla''
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| ''jillījus'' || ''jillōrų'' || ''jillārų'' || ''jillōrų''
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| ''jillī'' || colspan="3"|''jillīs''
|-
! Accusative
| ''jillų'' || ''jillą'' || ''jillud''|| ''jillōs'' || ''jillās'' || ''jilla''
|-
! Ablative
| ''jillō'' || ''jillā'' || ''jillō''|| colspan="3"| ''jillīs''
|-
! Vocative
| ''jille'' || ''jilla'' || ''jillud'' || ''jillī'' || ''jillæ'' || ''jilla''
|-
|}
 
===Adjectives===
====First/second declension adjectives====
Declined as first/second declension pronouns except in neuter nominative singular.
 
Citation form: ''m. nom. sg., f. nom. sg., n. nom. sg.'' (if plural, use the plural equivalents)
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|+1st/2nd declension adjective endings
! rowspan="2"| Case !! colspan="3"|Singular !! colspan="3"|Plural
|-
! m. !! f. !! n. !! m. !! f. !! n.
|-
! nominative
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)a''|| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-ī'' || ''-(i)æ''|| ''-(i)a''
|-
! genitive
| colspan="3"| ''-ījus'' || ''-(i)ōrų'' || ''-(i)ārų'' || ''-(i)ōrų''
|-
! dative
| colspan="3"| ''-ī'' || colspan="3"| ''-īs''
|-
! accusative
| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ą'' || ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ōs'' || ''-(i)ās'' || ''-(i)a''
|-
! ablative
| ''-(i)ō'' || ''-(i)ā'' || ''-(i)ō'' || colspan="3"| ''-īs''
|-
! vocative
| ''-e'' || ''-(i)a'' || ''-(i)ų'' || ''-ī'' || ''-(i)æ'' || ''-(i)a''
|-
|-
|}
|}
====Third declension adjectives====
Declined as 3rd declension nouns.
Citation form: ''m./f. nom. sg., n. nom. sg., gen. sg.'' (if plural, use the plural equivalents)
*The neuter nominative singular can be omitted if it is identical to the masculine/feminine nominative singular.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|+3rd declension adjective endings
! rowspan="2"| Case !! colspan="2"|Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! m./f. !! n. !! m./f. !! n.
|-
! nominative
| (various) || (various) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
! genitive
| colspan="2"| ''-is'' || colspan="2"| ''-ių''
|-
! dative
| colspan="2"| ''-ī'' || colspan="2"| ''-ivīs, -īs''
|-
! accusative
| ''-ę'' || (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
! ablative
| colspan="2"| ''-e'' || colspan="2"| ''-ivīs, -īs''
|-
! vocative
| colspan="2"| (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|}
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Numerals
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! colspan="2"|Multiplier !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| ''nūllus, -a, -ų'' || ''nūllēsimus, -a, -ų''|| ''nūllēs'' || ''nūlliplus, -a, -ų''|| ''nūllēnus, -a, -ų''|| —
|-
! 1
| ''hūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''prīmus, -a, -ų'' || ''semel'' || ''simplus, -a, -ų''||''singlus, -a, -ų'' || ''sollus''
|-
! 2
| ''duvō, -æ, -ō''¹ || ''sekundus, -a, -ų'' || ''bis'' || ''duplus, -a, -ų''|| ''bīnus, -a, -ų'' || ''sēmis, sēmissis''
|-
! 3
| ''trēs, tria, trių'' || ''tercus, -a, -ų'' || ''ter'' || ''triplus, -a, -ų''|| ''ternus, -a, -ų'' || ''tręs, -entis''
|-
! 4
| ''kattūr'' || ''kārtus, -a, -ų''|| ''kater'' || ''kadruplus, -a, -ų'' || ''katernus, -a, -ų'' || ''kadrąs, -antis''
|-
!5
| ''cīnke'' || ''kīntus, -a, -ų''|| ''cīnkēs'' || ''kīntiplus, -a, -ų''|| ''kīnus, -a, -ų''|| ''kīntąs, -antis''
|-
|}
-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Numerals
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
! 0
| ''nūllus, -a, -ų'' || ''nūllēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 1
| ''hūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''prīmus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 2
| ''duvō, -æ, -ō''¹ || ''sekundus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 3
| ''trēs, tria, trių'' || ''tercus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 4
| ''kattūr'' || ''kārtus, -a, -ų''
|-
!5
| ''cīnke'' || ''kīntus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 6
| ''šeš'' || ''šeštus, -a, -ų''
|-
!7
| ''settę'' || ''settimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!8
| ''hottō'' || ''hottāvus, -a, -ų''
|-
!9
| ''novę'' || ''nōnus, -a, -ų''
|-
!10
| ''dečę'' || ''dečēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!11
| ''hūndcį'' || ''hūndcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!12
| ''dōdcį'' || ''dōdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!13
| ''tredcį'' || ''tredcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!14
| ''kattūrdcį'' || ''kattūrdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!15
| ''kīndcį'' || ''kīndcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!16
| ''sēdcį'' || ''sēdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!17
| ''settendcį'' || ''settendcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!18
| ''hottōdcį'' || ''hottōdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!19
| ''novendcį'' || ''novendcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
!20
| ''vīzintī'' || ''vīčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!21
| ''vīzintī hūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''vīzintī prīmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!30
| ''trīzintā'' || ''trīčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!40
|''kadrāzintā'' || ''kadrāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!50
|''cīnkāzintā'' || ''cīnkāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!60
|''šeššāzintā'' || ''šeššāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!70
|''settāzintā'' || ''settāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!80
|''hottōzintā'' || ''hottōčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!90
|''nōnāzintā'' || ''nōnāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!100
| ''čentų, -ī'' || ''čentēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 200
| ''duvō čenta, duvōrų čentōrų'' || ''duvō čentēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 1000
| ''mīlle'' || ''mīllēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!2000
| ''duvō mīllia, duvōrų mīllių'' || ''duvō mīllēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 10⁶
| ''mīllijō, -ōnis'' || ''mīllijōnēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
! 2×10⁶
| ''duvō mīllijōnēs, duvōrų mīllijōnių'' || ''duvō mīllijōnēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!10⁹
| ''mīllijardus, -ī'' || ''mīllijardēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
!2×10⁹
| ''duvō millijardī, duvōrų millijardōrų'' || ''duvō mīllijardēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ Declined as follows:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of ''duvō, -æ, -ō'' "two"
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="3"|Plural
|-
! m. !! f. !! pl.
|-
! Nominative
| ''duvō'' || ''duvæ'' || ''duvō''
|-
! Genitive
| ''duvōrų'' || ''duvārų'' || ''duvōrų''
|-
! Dative
| ''duvōvīs, duvois'' || ''duvāvīs, duvais'' || ''duvōvīs, duvois''
|-
! Accusative
| ''duvōs'' || ''duvās'' || ''duvō''
|-
! Ablative
| ''duvōvīs, duvois'' || ''duvāvīs, duvais'' || ''duvōvīs, duvois''
|}
This declension is shared by ''ambō, -æ, -ō'' "both".
===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Verbs are split into four conjugations that can be identified by their present active infinitive endings:
Verbs are split into four conjugations that can be identified by their present active infinitive endings:
*1st conjugation: ''-āre''
*1st conjugation: ''-(i)āre''
*2nd conjugation: ''-ēre''
*2nd conjugation: ''-ēre''
*3rd conjugation: ''-ere''
*3rd conjugation: ''-ere''
*4th conjugation: ''-īre''
*4th conjugation: ''-īre''
====Principal parts====
====Principal parts====
The full conjugation of most verbs (except some irregular verbs such as ''essere'' "to be") can be derived from their principal parts.
The full conjugation of all verbs (except the verb ''jessere'' "to be") can be derived from their principal parts.


The principle parts are:  
The principle parts are:  
*'''1st person singular present indicative''' - from which the secondary present stem is derived
*'''1st person singular present indicative''' - from which the secondary present stem is derived
*'''Present active infinitive''' - from which the primary present stem is derived
*'''Present active infinitive''' - from which the primary present stem is derived
*'''1st person singular preterite''' - from which the perfect stem is derived
*'''1st person singular perfect indicative''' - from which the perfect stem is derived
*'''Supine''' - from which the supine stem is derived
*'''Supine''' - from which the supine stem is derived


====Forms based on the present stem====
====Forms based on the present stem====
The present stem is obtained by removing the infinitive ending (''-(i)āre, -ēre, -ere,'' or ''-īre'') from the second principal part.
The present stem is obtained by removing the infinitive ending (''-(i)āre, -ēre, -ere,'' or ''-īre'') from the second principal part and (in the case of the first conjugation) maintaining its hardness/softness.
 
Many verbs in the second to fourth conjugations (and a few verbs in the first conjugation) have a secondary present stem distinct from the primary present stem. This is obtained by removing ''-(i)ō'' from the first principal part and maintaining its hardness/softness.
<!--
In the 2nd and 4th declensions, the stem-final consonant is always soft, which is indicated with an ''-i-'' before back vowels (which is dropped if the stem ends in ''-j-''). In the 1st and 3rd declensions, the stem-final consonant may be hard or soft.-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-finite forms based on the present stem
! !! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd !! 4th
|-
! Present active infinitive
| ''-(i)āre'' || ''-ēre'' || ''-ere'' || ''-īre''
|-
! Present active participle
| ''-(i)ąs, -(i)antis'' ||colspan="2"| ''-ęs, -entis'' || ''-ęs, -entis''¹
|-
! Present passive participle
| ''-(i)andus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2"|''-endus, -a, -ų ||''-endus, -a, -ų''¹
|-
! Obligative active participle
| ''-(i)antūrus, -a, -ų ||colspan="2"| ''-entūrus, -a, -ų'' || ''-entūrus, -a, -ų''¹
|}
'''Notes:'''


Many verbs in the third and forth conjugations have a secondary present stem distinct from the primary present stem. This is obtained by removing ''-(i)ō'' from the first principal part.
¹ Uses the secondary present stem (if applicable).
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Finite tenses based on the present stem
! rowspan="2"| Person/<br />number !! colspan="4" | Present indicative !! colspan="4" | Present subjunctive !! colspan="4" | Imperfect indicative !! colspan="4"| Imperfect subjunctive !! colspan="4"| Imperative
|-
! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd !! 4th !! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd !! 4th !! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd !! 4th !! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd !! 4th !! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd !! 4th
|-
! 1S
| colspan="4"|''-(i)ō''¹ || ''-ę''; ''-(i)ą''¹ || colspan="3"| ''-(i)ą''¹ || ''-(i)āvą'' ||colspan="2"| ''-ēvą'' || ''-ēvą''¹ || ''-(i)ārę'' || ''-ērę''|| ''-erę'' || ''-īrę''
|-
! 2S
| ''-(i)ās'' || ''-ēs'' || ''-is'' || ''-īs'' || ''-ēs''; ''-(i)ās''¹ || colspan="3"| ''-(i)ās''¹ || ''-(i)āvās'' ||colspan="2"| ''-evās'' ||''-ēvās''¹|| ''-(i)ārēs'' || ''-ērēs''|| ''-erēs'' || ''-īrēs'' || ''-(i)ā'' || ''-ē'' || ''-e'' || ''-ī''
|-
! 3S
| ''-(i)at'' || ''-et'' || ''-it'' || ''-it'' || ''-et''; ''-(i)at''¹ || colspan="3"| ''-(i)at''¹ || ''-(i)āvat'' ||colspan="2"| ''-ēvat'' ||''-ēvat''¹|| ''-(i)āret'' || ''-ēret''|| ''-eret'' || ''-īret''
|-
! 1P
| ''-(i)āmus'' || ''-ēmus'' || ''-imus'' || ''-īmus'' || ''-ēmus''; ''-(i)āmus''¹ || colspan="3"| ''-(i)āmus''¹ || ''-(i)āvāmus'' ||colspan="2"| ''-ēvāmus''||''-ēvāmus''¹|| ''-(i)ārēmus'' || ''-ērēmus''|| ''-erēmus'' || ''-īrēmus''
|-
! 2P
| ''-(i)ātis'' || ''-ētis'' || ''-itis'' || ''-ītis'' || ''-ētis''; ''-(i)ātis''¹ || colspan="3"| ''-(i)ātis''¹ || ''-(i)āvātis'' || colspan="2"|''-ēvātis''||''-ēvātis''¹|| ''-(i)ārētis'' || ''-ērētis''|| ''-erētis'' || ''-īrētis'' || ''-(i)āte || ''-ēte'' || ''-ite'' || ''-īte''
|-
! 3P
| ''-(i)ant'' || ''-ent'' || ''-(i)unt''¹ || ''-(i)unt''¹ || ''-ent''; ''-(i)ant''¹ || colspan="3"| ''-(i)ant''¹ || ''-(i)āvant'' || colspan="2"|''-ēvant''||''-ēvant''¹|| ''-(i)ārent'' || ''-ērent''|| ''-erent'' || ''-īrent''
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''


In the 2nd and 4th declensions, the stem-final consonant is always soft, which is indicated with an ''-i-'' before back vowels (which is dropped if the stem ends in ''-j-''). In the 1st and 3rd declensions, the stem-final consonant may be hard or soft.
¹ Uses the secondary present stem (if applicable). First conjugation verbs with an irregular secondary present stem use alternative present subjunctive endings identical to those of the remaining conjugations.
 
As indicated in the above tables, the secondary present stem is used in the following cases:
*'''All conjugations:'''
*#1S present indicative
*#Present subjunctive
*'''Additional for 3rd and 4th conjugations:'''
*#3P present indicative
*'''Additional for 4th conjugation only:'''
*#Imperfect tense
*#Present active participle
*#Present passive participle
*#Obligative active participle
Otherwise, the primary present stem is used.
 
====Forms based on the perfect stem====
The perfect stem is obtained by removing ''-ī'' from the third principle part.
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-finite forms based on the perfect stem
! Form !! Formation
|-
! Perfect active infinitive
| ''-isse''
|-
<!--
<!--
! Perfect active participle
| ''-ęs, -entis, -entių''
|-->
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Finite forms based on the perfect stem
! !! Perfect indicative !! Pluperfect indicative !! Perfect subjunctive !! Pluperfect subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| ''-ī'' || ''-erą'' || ''-erį'' || ''-issę''
|-
! 2S
| ''-istī'' || ''-erās'' || ''-erīs'' || ''-issēs''
|-
! 3S
| ''-it'' || ''-erat'' || ''-erit'' || ''-isset''
|-
! 1P
| ''-imus'' || ''-erāmus'' || ''-erīmus'' || ''-issēmus''
|-
! 2P
| ''-istis'' || ''-erātis'' || ''-erītis'' || ''-issētis''
|-
! 3P
| ''-ērunt'' || ''-erant'' || ''-erint'' || ''-issent''
|-
|}
Perfect stems ending in monophthong + ''-v-'' can optionally be contracted in certain environments. Note that the stress is always maintained as in the uncontracted form.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Forms based on the present stem
|+ Optional contractions of perfect-stem forms
! rowspan="2"| Person/<br />number !! colspan="4" | Present indicative !! colspan="2" | Present subjunctive !! -->
! Monophthong preceding ''-v-'' !! Sequence following ''-v-'' !! Contraction !! Remarks
|-
| rowspan="3"| ''ā'' || ''ī''; stressed ''i, ē'' || ''ai'' || Can become ''ā'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''e''; unstressed ''i, ē'' || ''ā'' or ''au'' ||
|-
|| ''o, ō, u, ū'' || ''au''
|-
| rowspan="3"| ''ē'' || ''ī''; stressed ''i, ē'' || ''ei'' ||
|-
| ''e''; unstressed ''i, ē'' || ''ē'' or ''eu'' ||
|-
| ''o, ō, u, ū'' || ''eu'' ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| ''ī'' || ''ē'' || ''ē'' ||
|-
| ''e, i, o, u'' || ''ī'' ||
|-
| ''ō'' || ''iō'' ||
|-
| ''ū'' || ''iū'' ||
|-
| rowspan="3"| ''ō'' || ''ī''; stressed ''i, ē'' || ''oi'' || Can become ''ō'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''e, o''; unstressed ''i, ē'' || ''ō'' or ''ou'' ||
|-
| ''u, ū'' || ''ou'' ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| ''u, ū'' || ''ī''; stressed ''i, ē'' || ''ui'' || Can become ''ū'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''e''; unstressed ''i, ē'' || ''ū'' ||
|-
| ''o, u, ū'' || ''ū'' ||
|-
| ''ō'' || ''ō'' ||
|-
|}
These contractions also occur optionally in other environments.
 
In regular verbs, the perfect stem can be derived from the present stem in predictable ways:
*'''1st conjugation:''' ''-āv-''
*'''2nd conjugation:''' ''-uv-'' (with hard stem-final consonant)
*'''3rd conjugation:''' ''-uv-'' (with hard stem-final consonant)
*'''4th conjugation:''' ''-īv-''
The majority of 1st and 4th conjugation verbs are regular, while 2nd and 3rd conjugation verbs (particularly 3rd conjugation) have a higher tendency to have irregular perfect stems.
 
Irregular perfect stems formations include:
*''-ēv-, -ōv-'' (for some 2nd and 3rd conjugation verbs).
*Adding ''-s-'' after the stem-final consonant (which may cause assimilation).
*Replacing ''-šč-'' with ''-v-'' and lengthening the preceding vowel if short (for 3rd declension verbs with infinitives ending in ''-ščere'' and 1S present indicative in ''-skō'').
*Reduplication.
*Vowel lengthening with or without vowel change.
*Dropping nasal infix from present stem.
*No change from present stem.


====Forms based on the perfect stem====
====Forms based on the supine stem====
====Forms based on the supine stem====
The supine stem is derived from the fourth principle part by removing the ending ''-ų''.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-finite forms based on the supine stem
! Form !! Formation
|-
! Supine
| ''-ų'' (acc.), ''-ū'' (dat./abl.)
|-
! Perfect active participle
| ''-ęs, -entis''
|-
! Perfect passive participle
| ''-us, -a, -ų''
|-
! Obligative passive participle
| ''-ūrus, -a, -ų''
|-
|}
Additionally, habitual tenses, participles, and infinitives are formed from the supine stem (see below).
For regular verbs, the supine stem is formed from the present stem as follows:
*'''1st conjugation:''' ''-āt-''
*'''2nd conjugation:''' ''-ūt-''
*'''3rd conjugation:''' ''-ūt-''
*'''4th conjugation:''' ''-īt-''
Verbs with an irregular perfect stem generally also have an irregular supine stem.
*If the perfect stem ends in a monophthong followed by ''-v-'', the supine stem generally ends in the monophthong (lengthened if short) + ''-t-''.
*Otherwise, the supine stem cannot be predictably derived based on the perfect stem. Possible endings (besides the already mentioned ones) include:
**''-t-'' (possibly with assimilation)
**''-s-'' (possibly with assimilation)
**''-it-''
Note that some verbs with a regular perfect stem may have an irregular supine stem and vice versa.
====Habitual forms====
The habitual is formed by adding ''-ō, -āre, -āvī, -ātų'' to the supine stem of a verb. All tenses, participles, and infinitives have a habitual counterpart formed by conjugating the habitual as a first conjugation verb.
The habitual may have an iterative or frequentative meaning in addition to its ordinary habitual meaning.
====Compound tenses====
====Compound tenses====
Compound tenses are formed with auxiliary verbs.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Compound tenses
! Tense !! Formation !! Remarks
|-
| Future || present tense of ''jīre'' "to go" + supine (acc.) || rowspan="2"|This can be made into a future-in-past form by instead using the appropriate past tense form of ''jīre''.
|-
| Future perfect || present tense of ''jīre'' "to go" + perfect active infinitive
|-
<!---
| Obligative || appropriately conjugated form of ''essere'' + obligative active participle || An obligative counterpart can be made out of any tense.-->
| Compound perfect || appropriately conjugated form of ''avēre'' "to have" + past participle (acc. neuter, or same gender as direct object) || A compound perfect can be formed from any tense.
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Compound non-finite forms
! Form !! Formation
|-
! Future active infinitive
| ''jīre'' + supine (acc.)
|-
! Future perfect active infinitive
| ''jīre'' + perfect active infinitive
|-
! Future active participle
| ''jęs, -entis'' + supine (acc.)
|-
|}
====Passive====
The imperfect passive of any active verb form (finite or non-finite) is formed by replacing that verb form with the equivalent form of the verb ''jessere'' "to be" followed by the verb's present passive participle. The perfect passive is formed similarly but using the perfect passive participle.
In compound forms, the above applies only to the main verbs and not the auxiliary verb.
It does not apply to the obligative active participle, which instead becomes the obligative passive participle.
====Obligative====
An obligative counterpart can be made from any tense. It is formed from its declarative counterpart by replacing the main verb with the appropriately conjugated form of ''jessere'' "to be" followed by the active or passive obligative participle.
====The verb ''jessere'' "to be"====
The verb ''sų, jessere, fuvī, fūtų'' "to be" is one of the most important verbs, and one of the most irregular. In fact, it is the only verb whose full conjugation cannot be determined based on its principle parts.
The forms based on the perfect and supine stems are formed regularly. However, the forms based on the present stem are formed irregularly.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-finite forms based on the present stem
! !! Form
|-
! Present active infinitive
| ''jessere''
|-
! Present active participle
| ''jessęs, -entis''
|-
! Present passive participle
| ''jessendus, -a, -ų''¹
|-
! Obligative active participle
| ''jessentūrus, -a, -ų''
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Finite tenses based on the present stem
! !! Present indicative !! Present subjunctive !! Imperfect indicative !! Imperfect subjunctive !! Imperative
|-
! 1S
| ''sų'' || ''sį'' || ''jerą'' || ''jesserę''
|-
! 2S
| ''jes'' || ''sīs'' || ''jerās'' || ''jesserēs'' || ''fī''¹
|-
! 3S
| ''jest'' || ''sit'' || ''jerat'' || ''jesseret''
|-
! 1P
| ''sumus'' || ''sīmus'' || ''jerāmu'' || ''jesserēmus''
|-
! 2P
| ''sutis'' || ''sītis'' || ''jerātis'' || ''jesserētis'' || ''fīte''¹
|-
! 3P
| ''sunt'' || ''sint'' || ''jerant'' || ''jesserent''
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ These are actually the imperative forms of ''fīre'' "to become" (principal parts: ''fiō, fīre, fīvī, fītų''); ''jessere'' does not have its own imperative.
====Examples of irregular verbs====
Irregular forms are underlined.
Note that class 3 has the most irregular verbs.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Some irregular verbs
! Principal parts !! Meaning !! Remarks
|-
! colspan="3"| First conjugation
|-
| ''dō, dāre, <u>dedī</u>, dātų'' || to give ||
|-
| ''stō, stāre, <u>stetī</u>, stātų'' || to be standing, to stay ||
|-
! colspan="3"| Second conjugation
|-
| ''aviō, avēre, <u>auvī</u>, avūtų'' || to have || While this verb's stem ends in ''-v-'' and can contract, it is rare in forms based on the present and supine stems. The perfect stem cannot contract due to the diphthong.
|-
| ''dēvio, dēvēre, <u>deuvī</u>, dēvūtų'' || to owe, have to ||While this verb's stem ends in ''-v-'' and can contract, it is rare in forms based on the present and supine stems. The perfect stem cannot contract due to the diphthong.
|-
| ''dēliō, dēlēre, <u>dēlēvī</u>, <u>dēlētų</u>'' || to destroy, erase, delete ||
|-
| ''<u>possō</u>, potēre, potuvī, potūtų'' || to be able to||
|-
| ''moviō, movēre, <u>mōvī</u>, <u>mōtų</u>'' || to start (something) || While this verb's stem ends in ''-v-'' and can contract, it is rare in forms based on the present stem.
|-
| ''sediō, sedēre, <u>sēdī</u>, <u>sessų</u>'' || to be seated
|-
! colspan="3"| Third conjugation
|-
| ''<u>nāskō</u>, nāščere, <u>nāvī</u>, <u>nātų</u>'' || to be born ||
|-
| ''jedō, jedere, <u>jēdī</u>, <u>jēsų</u>'' || to eat ||
|-
| ''facō, facere, <u>fēcī</u>, <u>fattų</u>'' || to do, make || This verb has an abbreviated 1st conjugation primary present stem (infinitive: ''fāre'') and corresponding supine ''fātų''.
|-
| ''<u>ahō</u>, ažere, <u>jēzī</u>, <u>attų</u>'' || to act, behave ||
|-
| ''skrīvō, skrīvere, <u>skrīssī</u>, <u>skrīttų</u>'' || to write || This verb has an abbreviated 4th conjugation primary present stem (infinitive: ''skrīre'') and corresponding supine ''skrītų''.
|-
| ''<u>jungō</u>, jundžere, <u>jūnšī</u>, <u>jūntų</u>'' || to join ||
|-
| ''<u>dīkō</u>, dīcere, <u>dīššī</u>, <u>dīttų</u>'' || to say || This verb has an abbreviated 4th conjugation primary present stem (infinitive: ''dīre'') and corresponding supine ''dītų''.
|-
| ''vadō, vadere, <u>vāsī</u>, <u>vāsų</u>'' || to go || This verb has an abbreviated 1st conjugation primary present stem (infinitive: ''vāre'').
|-
| ''minuvō, minuvere, <u>minūvī</u>, <u>minūtų</u>'' || to reduce, make smaller || This verb (and other verbs ending in ''-uvere'') are often contracted in present-stem forms in addition to perfect-stem forms.
|-
| ''struvō, struvere, <u>strūššī</u>, <u>strūttų</u>'' || to build, create || This verb and similar can be contracted only in present-stem forms since the perfect stem does not contain ''-v-''.
|-
| ''pōnō, pōnere, <u>posuvī</u>, <u>postų</u>'' || to put ||
|-
! colspan="3"| Fourth conjugation
|-
| ''<u>audzō</u>, audīre, audīvī, audītų'' || to hear ||
|-
| ''veniō, venīre, <u>vēnī</u>, <u>ventų</u>'' || to come ||
|-
|}
====Lexical aspect====
While aspect is primarily expressed through verb conjugation (like Romance languages and unlike Balto-Slavic languages), there is a tendency towards certain verbs having inherent aspect. These verbs generally also have causative counterparts.
"Imperfective" and "perfective" can alternatively be referred to as "stative" and "inchoative" respectively.
Some examples of imperfective-perfective-causative counterparts are given below. Note that the counterparts are not necessarily fully synonymous besides aspect, and they may have alternative meanings that are not shared.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Imperfective/perfective/causative sets
! colspan="2"|Imperfective !! colspan="2"|Perfective !! colspan="2"| Causative !! rowspan="2"|Remarks
|-
! Principal parts !! Meaning !! Principal parts!! Meaning !! Principal parts !! Meaning
|-
| ''sų, jessere, fuvī, fūtų'' || to be || ''fiō, fīre, fīvī, fītų'' || to become || ''facō, facere, fēcī, fattų'' || to make ||
|-
| ''stō, stāre, stetī, stātų'' || to be standing || ''surhō, suržere, sūršī, sūrtų'' || to stand up, to stop (intr.), to go into a standing position || ''sistō, sistere, sistuvī, sistūtų'' || to make stand, to stop (tr.), to put into a standing position ||
|-
| ''sedzō, sedēre, sēdī, sessų'' || to be sitting ||''sīdō, sīdere, sēdī, sessų'' || to sit down, to sit up, to go into a sitting position || ''lokō, lokāre, lokāvī, lokātų'' || to set, to put down
|-
| ''jačo, jačēre, jakuvī, jakūtų'' || to be lying || ''dēkumbō, dēkumbere, dēkūvī, dēkūtų'' || to lie down || ''deicō, deicere, dēcī, dēttų'' || to lay down ||
|-
| ''scō, scīre, scīvī, scītų'' || to know || ''diskō, diščere, didcī, distų''; ''scīskō, scīščere, scīvī, scītų'' || to learn, come to know || ''dočō, dočēre, dokuvī, dottų'' || to teach ||
|-
| ''aviō, avēre, auvī, avūtų''|| to have, hold || ''teniō, tenēre, tenuvī, tentų'' || to take hold, acquire || ''perviō, pervēre, perūvī, pervūtų'' || to grant ||
|-
| ''dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī, dormītų'' || to be asleep || ''dormīskō, dormīščere, dormīvī, dormītų'' || to fall asleep || — || — || Many verbs have inchoatives formed with the suffix ''-skō, -ščere''. Such inchoative verbs often share their third and fourth principal parts with the verb they are derived from.
|}
Note that in perfect tenses and the imperative, imperfective verbs can become almost synonymous with their perfective counterparts - e.g. ''stetī ≈ sūršī'' "I stood". However, in certain contexts, their meanings are distinct - e.g. ''<b>Sūršī</b> jet <b>stetī</b> duvās ōrās.'' "'''I stood up''' and '''remained standing''' for two hours."
For some pairs, the imperfective and perfective counterparts have the same perfect and supine forms. In such cases, they are distinguished by context - e.g. ''<b>Sēdī</b> jet <b>sēdī</b> duvās ōrās.'' "'''I sat down''' and '''remained sitting''' for two hours."
In imperfect tenses (i.e. the present indicative, the imperfect indicative and subjunctive), perfective verbs tend to become inchoative in meaning - e.g. ''suržēvą'' "I was standing up/stopping" vs. ''stāvą'' "I was standing".
If needed, for verbs without lexical aspect, imperfective can be explicitly marked using ''jessere'' + present participle, while perfective can be marked with ''fīre'' + present participle (if not already marked via compound perfect or other means).
''Facere'' + infinitive is used to form analytical causatives.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
SVO
Chelsian is pro-drop.
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
Modifiers precede the noun they modify.
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''Tempus''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Tempestātēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| spring || ''vēr, -is'' (n.)
|-
| summer || ''jēstās, -tis'' (f.)
|-
| fall || ''autumnus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| winter || ''jemps, jemis'' (f.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''Grēgorī męsēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| January || ''januvārius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| February || ''fevruvārius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| March || ''marcus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| April || ''aprīlis, -is'' (m.)
|-
| May || ''majjus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| June || ''jūnius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| July || ''jūlius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| August || ''auhustus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| September || ''settember, -bris'' (m.)
|-
| October || ''hottōver, -vris'' (m.)
|-
| November || ''november, -bris'' (m.)
|-
| December || ''dečember, -bris'' (m.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Settimānæ dzēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| Sunday || ''prīndzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Monday || ''sekundzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Tuesday || ''terdzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Wednesday || ''kārdzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Thursday || ''kīndzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Friday || ''šeddzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Saturday || ''settindzēs'' (m.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Dzei partēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| day || ''dzēs, dzei'' (m.)
|-
| dawn || ''aurōra, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| morning || ''māne, -is'' (n.)
|-
| noon || ''merīdzēs, -ei'' (m.)
|-
| afternoon || ''sēra, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| evening || ''vesperus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| dusk || ''krepuslų, -ī'' (n.)
|-
| night || ''nōš, nottis'' (f.)
|-
| midnight || ''medzanōš, -nottis'' (f.)
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Temporis ūnitātēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| second || ''sekundus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| minute || ''minūtus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| hour || ''hōra, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| day || ''dzēs, dzei'' (m.)
|-
| week || ''settimāna, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| month || ''męsis, -is'' (m.)
|-
| season || ''tempestās, -tis'' (f.)
|-
| year || ''annus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Temporālī adverbī''''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| now || ''nų''
|-
| then || ''tų''
|-
| recently || ''nūper''
|-
| earlier || ''prius''
|-
| soon, shortly || ''brevī''
|-
| later || ''sēcus''
|-
| always || ''semper''
|-
| often || ''sēpe''
|-
| sometimes || ''alkandō''
|-
| rarely || ''rārō''
|-
| never || ''nunką''
|-
| ever || ''hunką''
|-
| still, yet || ''jecannų''
|-
| already || ''ją''
|-
| today || ''hodzē''
|-
| tonight || ''jistā notte''
|-
| yesterday || ''jerī''
|-
| last night || ''cessente notte''
|-
| tomorrow || ''krās''
|-
| before yesterday || ''sekundō jerī''
|-
| after tomorrow || ''sekundō krās; perendzē''
|-
| this week || ''jistā settimānā''
|-
| last week || ''cessente settimānā''
|-
| next week || ''ventūrā settimānā''
|-
| this year || ''hōrnō''
|-
| last year || ''cessente annō''
|-
| next year || ''ventūrō annō''
|-
|}
===Colours - ''Kolōrēs''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''Kolōrēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| white || ''albus, -a, -ų''
|-
| grey || ''rāvus, -a, -ų''
|-
| black || ''nihrus, -a, -ų''
|-
| red || ''rubrus, -a, -ų''
|-
| orange || ''orandžus, -a, -ų''
|-
| brown || ''červīnus, -a, -ų''
|-
| yellow || ''flāvus, -a, -ų''
|-
| green || ''virdis, -e, -is''
|-
| blue || ''ciānius, -ia, -ių''
|-
| pink || ''rosius, -ia, -ių''
|-
| purple || ''violāčus, -a, -ų''
|-
| golden || ''aurōsus, -a, -ų''
|-
|}


==Example Texts==
==Example Texts==
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Tōtī vominēs naščunt līverī jet jekālēs in dinnitāte jet jūrivīs. Sunt dōtātī dē rācōne jet kǫscencæ, jet dēviunt ažere inter sē in frāternitātis spīritī.
Tōtī homnēs nāskunt līverī jet jekālēs jin dinnitāte jet jūrivīs. Sunt dōtātī dē rācōne jet kǫscencæ, jet dēvent ažere jinter sē jin frāternitātis spīritī.


[ˈtoːtʲiː ˈʋɔmʲɪnʲæːs ˈnɐʃtʃʊnt ˈlʲiːvʲɛrʲiː jɛt jɛˈkaːlʲæːs jɪn dʲɪnʲːɪˈtaːtʲe̞ jɛt ˈjuːrʲɪvʲiːs ‖ sʊnt doːˈtaːtʲiː dʲeː raːˈtsoːnʲɛ jɛt koːˈstsʲɛnʲtseː | jɛt dʲɛːvʲʊnt ˈɐʑe̞rʲe̞ ˈjɪnʲtʲɛr sʲeː jɪn fraːtʲɛrʲnʲɪˈtaːtʲɪs ˈsʲpʲiːrʲɪtʲiː]
[ˈtoːtʲiː ˈɦɔmʲnʲæːs ˈnäːskʊnt ˈlʲiːvʲɛrʲiː jɛt jɛˈkaːlʲæːs jɪn dʲɪnʲːɪˈtaːtʲe̞ jɛt ˈjuːrʲɪvʲiːs ‖ sʊnt doːˈtaːtʲiː dʲeː raːˈtsoːnʲɛ jɛt koːˈstsʲɛnʲtseː | jɛt ˈdʲɛːvʲe̞nt ˈɐʑe̞rʲe̞ ˈjɪnʲtʲɛr sʲeː jɪn fraːtʲɛrʲnʲɪˈtaːtʲɪs ˈsʲpʲiːrʲɪtʲiː]


==Other resources==
==Other resources==
[[Chelsian/Swadesh_list|Swadesh list]]
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