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*Original velars became alveolar/dental fricatives/affricates before /i/ and postalveolar fricatives/affricates before /e/.
*Original velars became alveolar/dental fricatives/affricates before /i/ and postalveolar fricatives/affricates before /e/.
**This is because palatalization before /i/ and before /e/ occurred separately at different times.
**This is because palatalization before /i/ and before /e/ occurred separately at different times.
*Original /t/ and /d/ before /j/ became affricates.
*Original /s/ before /j/ became /ʃ/.
*Original labiovelars became plain velars in all positions.
*Original labiovelars became plain velars in all positions.
*Innovated hard/soft consonant distinction.
*Innovated hard/soft consonant distinction.
*Glide ''v-'' inserted before word-initial ''o-'' (long or short).
*Original glide ''w-'' (modern ''h-'') inserted before word-initial ''o-'' and ''u-'' (long or short).
*Glide ''j-'' inserted before word-initial ''e-'' and ''i-'' (long or short).
*Glide ''j-'' inserted before word-initial ''e-'' and ''i-'' (long or short).
*Original ''au'' preserved as a diphthong.
*Original ''au'' preserved as a diphthong.
*Original ''ae'' merged with long ''e'' in most cases, but was kept distinct in 1st declension noun inflectional endings (later merged in pronunciation but without palatalization).
*Original ''ae'' merged with long ''e'' in most cases, but was kept distinct in 1st declension noun inflectional endings (later merged in pronunciation but without palatalization).
**This may have actually been through an intermediate phase ''-āī'' rather than descending directly from Classical Latin ''-ae''.
**This may have actually been through an intermediate phase ''-āī'' rather than descending directly from Classical Latin ''-ae''.
*Original ''oe'' merged with long ''e'' in all cases.
*Original ''oe'' was preserved longer, but eventually merged with ''e'' but without palatalization. Initially, it is preceded with ''h-''.
 
*Cluster simplification:
**/ps/ to /s(ː)/
**/kt/ and /pt/ to /t(ː)/
**/ks/ to /ʃ(ː)/
====Grammatical====
====Grammatical====
*Preserves case inflection.
*Preserves case inflection.
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|i
|i
|[ɪ]
|[ɪ]
|/jɪ/ word-initially.
|
|-
|-
|ī
|ī
|rowspan="2"|[iː]
|rowspan="2"|[iː]
|rowspan="2"|/jiː/ word-initially.
|rowspan="2"|
|-
|-
|į
|į
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|y
|y
|[ɪ]
|[ɪ]
|rowspan="2"|Used to represent unpalatalized /ɪ/ and /iː/ in loanwords (especially word-initially).
|rowspan="2"|Used to represent non-palatalizing /ɪ/ and /iː/ in loanwords.
|-
|-
|ȳ
|ȳ
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|-
|-
|h
|h
|{{IPA|ɦ}}
|{{IPA|ɦ}}; {{IPA|ɣ}}¹
|{{IPA|ɣʲ}}
|{{IPA|ɣʲ}}
|-
|-
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|{{IPA|ʑ}}
|{{IPA|ʑ}}
|}
|}
¹ Adjacent to consonants.
Consonants are always palatalized (soft) before ⟨e, ē, ę, i, ī, į⟩.
Consonants are always palatalized (soft) before ⟨e, ē, ę, i, ī, į⟩.
Before ⟨a, ā, ą, æ, o, ō, ǫ, u, ū, ų⟩, palatalization is denoted by inserting an ⟨i⟩ between the consonant and the vowel.
Before ⟨a, ā, ą, æ, o, ō, ǫ, u, ū, ų⟩, palatalization is denoted by inserting an ⟨i⟩ between the consonant and the vowel.
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-->
-->
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Citation form: ''nom. sg., gen. sg.''
====First declension====
====First declension====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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|-
|-
! nominative
! nominative
| colspan="2"| (various) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| colspan="2"| (various) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
! genitive
! genitive
| colspan="2"| ''-is'' || colspan="2"| ''-(i)ų''
| colspan="2"| ''-is'' || colspan="2"| ''-ių''
|-
|-
! dative
! dative
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|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-ę'' || (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| ''-ę'' || (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
! ablative
! ablative
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|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
| colspan="2"| (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| colspan="2"| (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! nominative
! nominative
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)ū'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)u'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
|-
|-
! genitive
! genitive
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|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ū'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)u'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
|-
|-
! ablative
! ablative
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|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)ū'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)u'' || ''-(i)ūs'' || ''-(i)uva''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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'''Notes:'''  
'''Notes:'''  


¹ The cases have been reordered for convenience, since nominative & accusative forms are often identical as are dative & ablative. The vocative has been excluded since it is always identical to the nominative except in the 3SM, where it is ''isse''.
¹ The cases have been reordered for convenience, since nominative & accusative forms are often identical as are dative & ablative. The vocative has been excluded since it is always identical to the nominative except in the 3SM, where it is ''jisse''.


² In addition to undeclined genitives, personal pronouns have declined possessive forms.
² In addition to undeclined genitives, personal pronouns have declined possessive forms.
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|-
|-
! rowspan="6" | 3 !! rowspan="3"|sg. !! m.
! rowspan="6" | 3 !! rowspan="3"|sg. !! m.
| ''issus'' || ''issų'' || ''issījus''|| ''issījus, -a, -ų'' || ''issī'' || ''issō''
| ''jissus'' || ''jissų'' || ''jissījus''|| ''jissījus, -a, -ų'' || ''jissī'' || ''jissō''
|-
|-
! f.
! f.
| ''issa'' || ''issą'' || ''issījus''|| ''issījus, -a, -ų'' || ''issī'' || ''issā''
| ''jissa'' || ''jissą'' || ''jissījus''|| ''jissījus, -a, -ų'' || ''jissī'' || ''jissā''
|-
|-
! n.
! n.
| colspan="2" | ''issud'' || ''issījus''||''issījus, -a, -ų'' || ''issī'' || ''issō''
| colspan="2" | ''jissud'' || ''jissījus''||''jissījus, -a, -ų'' || ''jissī'' || ''jissō''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3"|pl. !! m.
! rowspan="3"|pl. !! m.
| ''issī'' || ''issōs'' || ''issōrų''||''issōrus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''issīs''
| ''jissī'' || ''jissōs'' || ''jissōrų''||''jissōrus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''jissīs''
|-
|-
! f.
! f.
| ''issæ'' || ''issās'' || ''issārų''||''issārus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''issīs''
| ''jissæ'' || ''jissās'' || ''jissārų''||''jissārus, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''jissīs''
|-
|-
! n.
! n.
| colspan="2" | ''issa'' || ''issījus''||''issōrų, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''issīs''
| colspan="2" | ''jissa'' || ''jissījus''||''jissōrų, -a, -ų'' || colspan="2" | ''jissīs''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Reflexive !! all
! colspan="2" | Reflexive !! all
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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''istus'' || ''ista'' || ''istud'' || ''istī'' || ''istæ'' || ''ista''
| ''jistus'' || ''jista'' || ''jistud'' || ''jistī'' || ''jistæ'' || ''jista''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| ''istījus'' || ''istōrų'' || ''istārų'' || ''istōrų''
| colspan="3"| ''jistījus'' || ''jistōrų'' || ''jistārų'' || ''jistōrų''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| colspan="3"| ''istī'' || colspan="3"|''istīs''
| colspan="3"| ''jistī'' || colspan="3"|''jistīs''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| ''istų'' || ''istą'' || ''istud''|| ''istōs'' || ''istās'' || ''ista''
| ''jistų'' || ''jistą'' || ''jistud''|| ''jistōs'' || ''jistās'' || ''jista''
|-
|-
! Ablative
! Ablative
| ''istō'' || ''istā'' || ''istō''|| colspan="3"| ''istīs''
| ''jistō'' || ''jistā'' || ''jistō''|| colspan="3"| ''jistīs''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| ''iste'' || ''ista'' || ''istud'' || ''istī'' || ''istæ'' || ''ista''
| ''jiste'' || ''jista'' || ''jistud'' || ''jistī'' || ''jistæ'' || ''jista''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''illus'' || ''illa'' || ''illud'' || ''illī'' || ''illæ'' || ''illa''
| ''jillus'' || ''jilla'' || ''jillud'' || ''jillī'' || ''jillæ'' || ''jilla''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| ''illījus'' || ''illōrų'' || ''illārų'' || ''illōrų''
| colspan="3"| ''jillījus'' || ''jillōrų'' || ''jillārų'' || ''jillōrų''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| colspan="3"| ''illī'' || colspan="3"|''illīs''
| colspan="3"| ''jillī'' || colspan="3"|''jillīs''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| ''illų'' || ''illą'' || ''illud''|| ''illōs'' || ''illās'' || ''illa''
| ''jillų'' || ''jillą'' || ''jillud''|| ''jillōs'' || ''jillās'' || ''jilla''
|-
|-
! Ablative
! Ablative
| ''illō'' || ''illā'' || ''illō''|| colspan="3"| ''illīs''
| ''jillō'' || ''jillā'' || ''jillō''|| colspan="3"| ''jillīs''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| ''ille'' || ''illa'' || ''illud'' || ''illī'' || ''illæ'' || ''illa''
| ''jille'' || ''jilla'' || ''jillud'' || ''jillī'' || ''jillæ'' || ''jilla''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
====First/second declension adjectives====
====First/second declension adjectives====
Declined as first/second declension pronouns with regular masculine nominative singular.
Declined as first/second declension pronouns except in neuter nominative singular.
 
Citation form: ''m. nom. sg., f. nom. sg., n. nom. sg.'' (if plural, use the plural equivalents)
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|+1st/2nd declension adjective endings
|+1st/2nd declension adjective endings
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|-
|-
! nominative
! nominative
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)a''|| ''-(i)ud'' || ''-ī'' || ''-(i)æ''|| ''-(i)a''
| ''-(i)us'' || ''-(i)a''|| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-ī'' || ''-(i)æ''|| ''-(i)a''
|-
|-
! genitive
! genitive
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|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ą'' || ''-(i)ud'' || ''-(i)ōs'' || ''-(i)ās'' || ''-(i)a''
| ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ą'' || ''-(i)ų'' || ''-(i)ōs'' || ''-(i)ās'' || ''-(i)a''
|-
|-
! ablative
! ablative
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|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
| ''-e'' || ''-(i)a'' || ''-(i)ud'' || ''-ī'' || ''-(i)æ'' || ''-(i)a''
| ''-e'' || ''-(i)a'' || ''-(i)ų'' || ''-ī'' || ''-(i)æ'' || ''-(i)a''
|-
|-
|}
|}
====Third declension adjectives====
====Third declension adjectives====
Declined as 3rd declension nouns.
Declined as 3rd declension nouns.
Citation form: ''m./f. nom. sg., n. nom. sg., gen. sg.'' (if plural, use the plural equivalents)
*The neuter nominative singular can be omitted if it is identical to the masculine/feminine nominative singular.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|+3rd declension adjective endings
|+3rd declension adjective endings
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|-
|-
! nominative
! nominative
| (various) || (various) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| (various) || (various) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
! genitive
! genitive
| colspan="2"| ''-is'' || colspan="2"| ''-(i)ų''
| colspan="2"| ''-is'' || colspan="2"| ''-ių''
|-
|-
! dative
! dative
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|-
|-
! accusative
! accusative
| ''-ę'' || (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| ''-ę'' || (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
! ablative
! ablative
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|-
|-
! vocative
! vocative
| colspan="2"| (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-(i)a''
| colspan="2"| (same as nom.) || ''-ēs'' || ''-ia''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''ūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''prīmus, -a, -ų'' || ''semel'' || ''simplus, -a, -ų''||''singlus, -a, -ų'' || ''sollus''
| ''hūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''prīmus, -a, -ų'' || ''semel'' || ''simplus, -a, -ų''||''singlus, -a, -ų'' || ''sollus''
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
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|-
|-
! 3
! 3
| ''trēs, tria, trių'' || ''tercus, -a, -ų'' || ''ter'' || ''triplus, -a, -ų''|| ''ternus, -a, -ų'' || ''tręs, -entis, -entių''
| ''trēs, tria, trių'' || ''tercus, -a, -ų'' || ''ter'' || ''triplus, -a, -ų''|| ''ternus, -a, -ų'' || ''tręs, -entis''
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| ''kattor'' || ''kārtus, -a, -ų''|| ''kater'' || ''kadruplus, -a, -ų'' || ''katernus, -a, -ų'' || ''kadrąs, -antis, -antių''
| ''kattūr'' || ''kārtus, -a, -ų''|| ''kater'' || ''kadruplus, -a, -ų'' || ''katernus, -a, -ų'' || ''kadrąs, -antis''
|-
|-
!5
!5
| ''cīnke'' || ''kīntus, -a, -ų''|| ''cīnkēs'' || ''kīntiplus, -a, -ų''|| ''kīnus, -a, -ų''|| ''kīntąs, -antis, -antių''
| ''cīnke'' || ''kīntus, -a, -ų''|| ''cīnkēs'' || ''kīntiplus, -a, -ų''|| ''kīnus, -a, -ų''|| ''kīntąs, -antis''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! 0
! 0
| ''nūllus, -a, -ų'' || ''nūllēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''nūllus, -a, -ų'' || ''nūllēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''ūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''prīmus, -a, -ų''
| ''hūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''prīmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
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|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| ''kattor'' || ''kārtus, -a, -ų''
| ''kattūr'' || ''kārtus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!5
!5
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|-
|-
!8
!8
| ''vottō'' || ''vottāvus, -a, -ų''
| ''hottō'' || ''hottāvus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!9
!9
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|-
|-
!10
!10
| ''dečę'' || ''decimus, -a, -ų''
| ''dečę'' || ''dečēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!11
!11
| ''ūndcį'' || ''ūndecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''hūndcį'' || ''hūndcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!12
!12
| ''dōdcį'' || ''dōdecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''dōdcį'' || ''dōdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!13
!13
| ''tredcį'' || ''tredecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''tredcį'' || ''tredcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!14
!14
| ''kattordcį'' || ''kattordecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''kattūrdcį'' || ''kattūrdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!15
!15
| ''kīndcį'' || ''kīndecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''kīndcį'' || ''kīndcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!16
!16
| ''sēdcį'' || ''sēdecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''sēdcį'' || ''sēdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!17
!17
| ''settendcį'' || ''settendecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''settendcį'' || ''settendcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!18
!18
| ''vottōdcį'' || ''vottōdecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''hottōdcį'' || ''hottōdcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!19
!19
| ''novendcį'' || ''novendecimus, -a, -ų''
| ''novendcį'' || ''novendcimus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!20
!20
| ''vīzintī'' || ''vīčēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''vīzintī'' || ''vīčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!21
!21
| ''vīzintī ūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''vīzintī prīmus, -a, -ų''
| ''vīzintī hūnus, -a, -ų'' || ''vīzintī prīmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!30
!30
| ''trīzintā'' || ''trīčēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''trīzintā'' || ''trīčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!40
!40
|''kadrāzintā'' || ''kadrāčēsimus, -a, -ų''
|''kadrāzintā'' || ''kadrāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!50
!50
|''cīnkāzintā'' || ''cīnkāčēsimus, -a, -ų''
|''cīnkāzintā'' || ''cīnkāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!60
!60
|''šeššāzintā'' || ''šeššāčēsimus, -a, -ų''
|''šeššāzintā'' || ''šeššāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!70
!70
|''settāzintā'' || ''settāčēsimus, -a, -ų''
|''settāzintā'' || ''settāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!80
!80
|''vottōzintā'' || ''vottōčēsimus, -a, -ų''
|''hottōzintā'' || ''hottōčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!90
!90
|''nōnāzintā'' || ''nōnāčēsimus, -a, -ų''
|''nōnāzintā'' || ''nōnāčēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!100
!100
| ''čentų, -ī'' || ''čentēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''čentų, -ī'' || ''čentēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
! 200
! 200
| ''duvō čenta, -ārų'' || ''duvō čentēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''duvō čenta, duvōrų čentōrų'' || ''duvō čentēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| ''mīlle'' || ''mīllēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''mīlle'' || ''mīllēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!2000
!2000
| ''duvō mīllia, duvōrų mīllių'' || ''duvō mīllēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''duvō mīllia, duvōrų mīllių'' || ''duvō mīllēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
! 10⁶
! 10⁶
| ''mīllijō, -ōnis'' || ''mīllijōnēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''mīllijō, -ōnis'' || ''mīllijōnēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
! 2×10⁶
! 2×10⁶
| ''duvō mīllijōnēs, duvōrų mīllijōnių'' || ''duvō mīllijōnēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''duvō mīllijōnēs, duvōrų mīllijōnių'' || ''duvō mīllijōnēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!10⁹
!10⁹
| ''mīllijardus, -ī'' || ''mīllijardēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''mīllijardus, -ī'' || ''mīllijardēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
!2×10⁹
!2×10⁹
| ''duvō millijardī, duvōrų millijardōrų'' || ''duvō mīllijardēsimus, -a, -ų''
| ''duvō millijardī, duvōrų millijardōrų'' || ''duvō mīllijardēsmus, -a, -ų''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! Present active participle
! Present active participle
| ''-(i)ąs, -(i)antis, -(i)antių'' ||colspan="2"| ''-ęs, -entis, -entių'' || ''-ęs, -entis, -entių''¹
| ''-(i)ąs, -(i)antis'' ||colspan="2"| ''-ęs, -entis'' || ''-ęs, -entis''¹
|-
|-
! Present passive participle
! Present passive participle
Line 915: Line 929:
|-
|-
| ''e''; unstressed ''i, ē'' || ''ā'' or ''au'' ||
| ''e''; unstressed ''i, ē'' || ''ā'' or ''au'' ||
|-
|| ''o, ō, u, ū'' || ''au''
|| ''o, ō, u, ū'' || ''au''
|-
|-
Line 974: Line 989:
|-
|-
! Perfect active participle
! Perfect active participle
| ''-ęs, -entis, -entių''
| ''-ęs, -entis''
|-
|-
! Perfect passive participle
! Perfect passive participle
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|-
|-
|}
|}
Additionally, habitual tenses, participles, and infinitives are formed from the supine stem (see below).


For regular verbs, the supine stem is formed from the present stem as follows:
For regular verbs, the supine stem is formed from the present stem as follows:
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**''-it-''
**''-it-''
Note that some verbs with a regular perfect stem may have an irregular supine stem and vice versa.
Note that some verbs with a regular perfect stem may have an irregular supine stem and vice versa.
====Habitual forms====
The habitual is formed by adding ''-ō, -āre, -āvī, -ātų'' to the supine stem of a verb. All tenses, participles, and infinitives have a habitual counterpart formed by conjugating the habitual as a first conjugation verb.
The habitual may have an iterative or frequentative meaning in addition to its ordinary habitual meaning.


====Compound tenses====
====Compound tenses====
Line 1,003: Line 1,024:
! Tense !! Formation !! Remarks
! Tense !! Formation !! Remarks
|-
|-
| Future || present tense of ''īre'' "to go" + supine (acc.) || rowspan="2"|This can be made into a future-in-past form by instead using the appropriate past tense form of ''īre''.
| Future || present tense of ''jīre'' "to go" + supine (acc.) || rowspan="2"|This can be made into a future-in-past form by instead using the appropriate past tense form of ''jīre''.
|-
|-
| Future perfect || present tense of ''īre'' "to go" + perfect active infinitive
| Future perfect || present tense of ''jīre'' "to go" + perfect active infinitive
|-
|-
<!---
<!---
Line 1,018: Line 1,039:
|-
|-
! Future active infinitive
! Future active infinitive
| ''īre'' + supine (acc.)
| ''jīre'' + supine (acc.)
|-
|-
! Future perfect active infinitive
! Future perfect active infinitive
| ''īre'' + perfect active infinitive
| ''jīre'' + perfect active infinitive
|-
|-
! Future active participle
! Future active participle
Line 1,029: Line 1,050:


====Passive====
====Passive====
<!--
The imperfect passive of any active verb form (finite or non-finite) is formed by replacing that verb form with the equivalent form of the verb ''jessere'' "to be" followed by the verb's present passive participle. The perfect passive is formed similarly but using the perfect passive participle.
The passive of any active verb form (finite or non-finite) is formed by replacing that verb form with the equivalent form of the verb ''jessere'' "to be" followed by the verb's present passive participle. In compound forms, this applies only to the main verbs and not the auxiliary verb.
 
In compound forms, the above applies only to the main verbs and not the auxiliary verb.


This does not apply to the obligative active participle, which instead becomes the obligative passive participle.-->
It does not apply to the obligative active participle, which instead becomes the obligative passive participle.


====Obligative====
====Obligative====
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|-
|-
! Present active participle
! Present active participle
| ''jessęs, -entis, -entių''
| ''jessęs, -entis''
|-
|-
! Present passive participle
! Present passive participle
Line 1,085: Line 1,107:
¹ These are actually the imperative forms of ''fīre'' "to become" (principal parts: ''fiō, fīre, fīvī, fītų''); ''jessere'' does not have its own imperative.
¹ These are actually the imperative forms of ''fīre'' "to become" (principal parts: ''fiō, fīre, fīvī, fītų''); ''jessere'' does not have its own imperative.


====Other important irregular verbs====
====Examples of irregular verbs====
Irregular forms are underlined.
Irregular forms are underlined.


Note that class 3 has the most irregular verbs.
Note that class 3 has the most irregular verbs.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Important irregular verbs
|+ Some irregular verbs
! Principal parts !! Meaning !! Remarks
! Principal parts !! Meaning !! Remarks
|-
|-
Line 1,111: Line 1,133:
| ''moviō, movēre, <u>mōvī</u>, <u>mōtų</u>'' || to start (something) || While this verb's stem ends in ''-v-'' and can contract, it is rare in forms based on the present stem.
| ''moviō, movēre, <u>mōvī</u>, <u>mōtų</u>'' || to start (something) || While this verb's stem ends in ''-v-'' and can contract, it is rare in forms based on the present stem.
|-
|-
| ''<u>sedzō</u>, sedēre, <u>sēdī</u>, <u>sessų</u>'' || to be seated
| ''sediō, sedēre, <u>sēdī</u>, <u>sessų</u>'' || to be seated
|-
|-
! colspan="3"| Third conjugation
! colspan="3"| Third conjugation
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|-
|-
| ''minuvō, minuvere, <u>minūvī</u>, <u>minūtų</u>'' || to reduce, make smaller || This verb (and other verbs ending in ''-uvere'') are often contracted in present-stem forms in addition to perfect-stem forms.
| ''minuvō, minuvere, <u>minūvī</u>, <u>minūtų</u>'' || to reduce, make smaller || This verb (and other verbs ending in ''-uvere'') are often contracted in present-stem forms in addition to perfect-stem forms.
 
|-
| ''struvō, struvere, <u>strūššī</u>, <u>strūttų</u>'' || to build, create || This verb and similar can be contracted only in present-stem forms since the perfect stem does not contain ''-v-''.
|-
| ''pōnō, pōnere, <u>posuvī</u>, <u>postų</u>'' || to put ||
|-
|-
! colspan="3"| Fourth conjugation
! colspan="3"| Fourth conjugation
|-
|-
| ''<u>jō</u>, īre, īvī, ītų'' || to go || This verb is almost exclusively used as an auxiliary. As a main verb, it is considered archaic.
| ''<u>audzō</u>, audīre, audīvī, audītų'' || to hear ||
|-
|-
| ''<u>audzō</u>, audīre, audīvī, audītų'' || to hear ||
| ''veniō, venīre, <u>vēnī</u>, <u>ventų</u>'' || to come ||
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Lexical aspect====
====Lexical aspect====
While aspect is primarily expressed through verb conjugation (like Romance languages and unlike Balto-Slavic languages), there is a tendency towards certain verbs having inherent aspect. These verbs generally also have causative counterparts.  
While aspect is primarily expressed through verb conjugation (like Romance languages and unlike Balto-Slavic languages), there is a tendency towards certain verbs having inherent aspect. These verbs generally also have causative counterparts.
 
"Imperfective" and "perfective" can alternatively be referred to as "stative" and "inchoative" respectively.


Some examples of imperfective-perfective-causative counterparts are given below. Note that the counterparts are not necessarily fully synonymous besides aspect, and they may have alternative meanings that are not shared.
Some examples of imperfective-perfective-causative counterparts are given below. Note that the counterparts are not necessarily fully synonymous besides aspect, and they may have alternative meanings that are not shared.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Imperfective/perfective/causative sets
|+ Imperfective/perfective/causative sets
! Imperfective !! Perfective !! Meaning !! Causative !! Remarks
! colspan="2"|Imperfective !! colspan="2"|Perfective !! colspan="2"| Causative !! rowspan="2"|Remarks
|-
! Principal parts !! Meaning !! Principal parts!! Meaning !! Principal parts !! Meaning
|-
| ''sų, jessere, fuvī, fūtų'' || to be || ''fiō, fīre, fīvī, fītų'' || to become || ''facō, facere, fēcī, fattų'' || to make ||
|-
| ''stō, stāre, stetī, stātų'' || to be standing || ''surhō, suržere, sūršī, sūrtų'' || to stand up, to stop (intr.), to go into a standing position || ''sistō, sistere, sistuvī, sistūtų'' || to make stand, to stop (tr.), to put into a standing position ||
|-
|-
| ''sų, jessere, fuvī, fūtų'' || ''fiō, fīre, fīvī, fītų'' || to be || ''facō, facere, fēcī, fattų'' ||
| ''sedzō, sedēre, sēdī, sessų'' || to be sitting ||''sīdō, sīdere, sēdī, sessų'' || to sit down, to sit up, to go into a sitting position || ''lokō, lokāre, lokāvī, lokātų'' || to set, to put down
|-
|-
| ''stō, stāre, stetī, stātų'' || ''surhō, suržere, sūršī, sūrtų'' || to stand || ''sistō, sistere, sistuvī, sistūtų'' ||
| ''jačo, jačēre, jakuvī, jakūtų'' || to be lying || ''dēkumbō, dēkumbere, dēkūvī, dēkūtų'' || to lie down || ''deicō, deicere, dēcī, dēttų'' || to lay down ||  
|-
|-
| ''sedzō, sedēre, sēdī, sessų'' || ''sīdō, sīdere, sēdī, sessų'' || to sit || ''lokō, lokāre, lokāvī, lokātų'' ||
| ''scō, scīre, scīvī, scītų'' || to know || ''diskō, diščere, didcī, distų''; ''scīskō, scīščere, scīvī, scītų'' || to learn, come to know || ''dočō, dočēre, dokuvī, dottų'' || to teach ||
|-
|-
| ''jačo, jačēre, jakuvī, jakūtų'' || ''dēkumbō, dēkumbere, dēkūvī, dēkūtų'' || to lie || ''deicō, deicere, dēcī, dēttų'' ||
| ''aviō, avēre, auvī, avūtų''|| to have, hold || ''teniō, tenēre, tenuvī, tentų'' || to take hold, acquire || ''perviō, pervēre, perūvī, pervūtų'' || to grant ||
|-
|-
| ''dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī, dormītų'' || to be asleep || ''dormīskō, dormīščere, dormīvī, dormītų'' || to fall asleep || — || — || Many verbs have inchoatives formed with the suffix ''-skō, -ščere''. Such inchoative verbs often share their third and fourth principal parts with the verb they are derived from.
|}
|}
Note that in perfect/supine tenses and the imperative, imperfective verbs can become almost synonymous with their perfective counterparts, and in some cases they are homophonous - e.g. ''stetī ≈ sūršī'' "I stood". However, in certain contexts, their meanings are distinct - e.g. ''<b>Stetī</b> jet <b>sūršī</b> duvās ōrās.'' "'''I stood up''' and '''remained standing''' for two hours."
Note that in perfect tenses and the imperative, imperfective verbs can become almost synonymous with their perfective counterparts - e.g. ''stetī ≈ sūršī'' "I stood". However, in certain contexts, their meanings are distinct - e.g. ''<b>Sūršī</b> jet <b>stetī</b> duvās ōrās.'' "'''I stood up''' and '''remained standing''' for two hours."
 
For some pairs, the imperfective and perfective counterparts have the same perfect and supine forms. In such cases, they are distinguished by context - e.g. ''<b>Sēdī</b> jet <b>sēdī</b> duvās ōrās.'' "'''I sat down''' and '''remained sitting''' for two hours."
 
In imperfect tenses (i.e. the present indicative, the imperfect indicative and subjunctive), perfective verbs tend to become inchoative in meaning - e.g. ''suržēvą'' "I was standing up/stopping" vs. ''stāvą'' "I was standing".
 
If needed, for verbs without lexical aspect, imperfective can be explicitly marked using ''jessere'' + present participle, while perfective can be marked with ''fīre'' + present participle (if not already marked via compound perfect or other means).


In imperfect tenses (i.e. the present indicative and the imperfect indicative and subjunctive), perfective verbs tend to become inchoative in meaning - e.g. ''suržēvą'' "I was standing up/stopping, I used to stand up/stop" vs. ''stāvą'' "I was standing, I used to stand".
''Facere'' + infinitive is used to form analytical causatives.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
SVO
Chelsian is pro-drop.
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
Modifiers precede the noun they modify.
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''Tempus''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Tempestātēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| spring || ''vēr, -is'' (n.)
|-
| summer || ''jēstās, -tis'' (f.)
|-
| fall || ''autumnus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| winter || ''jemps, jemis'' (f.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''Grēgorī męsēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| January || ''januvārius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| February || ''fevruvārius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| March || ''marcus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| April || ''aprīlis, -is'' (m.)
|-
| May || ''majjus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| June || ''jūnius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| July || ''jūlius, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| August || ''auhustus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| September || ''settember, -bris'' (m.)
|-
| October || ''hottōver, -vris'' (m.)
|-
| November || ''november, -bris'' (m.)
|-
| December || ''dečember, -bris'' (m.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Settimānæ dzēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| Sunday || ''prīndzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Monday || ''sekundzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Tuesday || ''terdzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Wednesday || ''kārdzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Thursday || ''kīndzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Friday || ''šeddzēs'' (m.)
|-
| Saturday || ''settindzēs'' (m.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Dzei partēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| day || ''dzēs, dzei'' (m.)
|-
| dawn || ''aurōra, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| morning || ''māne, -is'' (n.)
|-
| noon || ''merīdzēs, -ei'' (m.)
|-
| afternoon || ''sēra, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| evening || ''vesperus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| dusk || ''krepuslų, -ī'' (n.)
|-
| night || ''nōš, nottis'' (f.)
|-
| midnight || ''medzanōš, -nottis'' (f.)
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Temporis ūnitātēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| second || ''sekundus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| minute || ''minūtus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
| hour || ''hōra, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| day || ''dzēs, dzei'' (m.)
|-
| week || ''settimāna, -æ'' (f.)
|-
| month || ''męsis, -is'' (m.)
|-
| season || ''tempestās, -tis'' (f.)
|-
| year || ''annus, -ī'' (m.)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Temporālī adverbī''''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| now || ''nų''
|-
| then || ''tų''
|-
| recently || ''nūper''
|-
| earlier || ''prius''
|-
| soon, shortly || ''brevī''
|-
| later || ''sēcus''
|-
| always || ''semper''
|-
| often || ''sēpe''
|-
| sometimes || ''alkandō''
|-
| rarely || ''rārō''
|-
| never || ''nunką''
|-
| ever || ''hunką''
|-
| still, yet || ''jecannų''
|-
| already || ''ją''
|-
| today || ''hodzē''
|-
| tonight || ''jistā notte''
|-
| yesterday || ''jerī''
|-
| last night || ''cessente notte''
|-
| tomorrow || ''krās''
|-
| before yesterday || ''sekundō jerī''
|-
| after tomorrow || ''sekundō krās; perendzē''
|-
| this week || ''jistā settimānā''
|-
| last week || ''cessente settimānā''
|-
| next week || ''ventūrā settimānā''
|-
| this year || ''hōrnō''
|-
| last year || ''cessente annō''
|-
| next year || ''ventūrō annō''
|-
|}
===Colours - ''Kolōrēs''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''Kolōrēs''
! English !! Chelsian
|-
| white || ''albus, -a, -ų''
|-
| grey || ''rāvus, -a, -ų''
|-
| black || ''nihrus, -a, -ų''
|-
| red || ''rubrus, -a, -ų''
|-
| orange || ''orandžus, -a, -ų''
|-
| brown || ''červīnus, -a, -ų''
|-
| yellow || ''flāvus, -a, -ų''
|-
| green || ''virdis, -e, -is''
|-
| blue || ''ciānius, -ia, -ių''
|-
| pink || ''rosius, -ia, -ių''
|-
| purple || ''violāčus, -a, -ų''
|-
| golden || ''aurōsus, -a, -ų''
|-
|}


==Example Texts==
==Example Texts==
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Tōtī vominēs nāskunt līverī jet jekālēs in dinnitāte jet jūrivīs. Sunt dōtātī dē rācōne jet kǫscencæ, jet dēvent ažere inter sē in frāternitātis spīritī.
Tōtī homnēs nāskunt līverī jet jekālēs jin dinnitāte jet jūrivīs. Sunt dōtātī dē rācōne jet kǫscencæ, jet dēvent ažere jinter sē jin frāternitātis spīritī.


[ˈtoːtʲiː ˈʋɔmʲɪnʲæːs ˈnäːskʊnt ˈlʲiːvʲɛrʲiː jɛt jɛˈkaːlʲæːs jɪn dʲɪnʲːɪˈtaːtʲe̞ jɛt ˈjuːrʲɪvʲiːs ‖ sʊnt doːˈtaːtʲiː dʲeː raːˈtsoːnʲɛ jɛt koːˈstsʲɛnʲtseː | jɛt ˈdʲɛːvʲe̞nt ˈɐʑe̞rʲe̞ ˈjɪnʲtʲɛr sʲeː jɪn fraːtʲɛrʲnʲɪˈtaːtʲɪs ˈsʲpʲiːrʲɪtʲiː]
[ˈtoːtʲiː ˈɦɔmʲnʲæːs ˈnäːskʊnt ˈlʲiːvʲɛrʲiː jɛt jɛˈkaːlʲæːs jɪn dʲɪnʲːɪˈtaːtʲe̞ jɛt ˈjuːrʲɪvʲiːs ‖ sʊnt doːˈtaːtʲiː dʲeː raːˈtsoːnʲɛ jɛt koːˈstsʲɛnʲtseː | jɛt ˈdʲɛːvʲe̞nt ˈɐʑe̞rʲe̞ ˈjɪnʲtʲɛr sʲeː jɪn fraːtʲɛrʲnʲɪˈtaːtʲɪs ˈsʲpʲiːrʲɪtʲiː]


==Other resources==
==Other resources==
[[Chelsian/Swadesh_list|Swadesh list]]
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Template area -->
<!-- Template area -->
Shariifka
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