Chlouvānem/Morphology: Difference between revisions

'''Chlouvānem''' is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles.

→ ''See [[Lahob languages#Morphology|Lahob languages § Morphology]] for diachronical tables and comparisons with sister languages.''

:: '''Singular''' (''emibausire nyañis'')

:: '''Dual''' (''danyausire nyañis'')

:: '''Plural''' (''tailyausire nyañis'')

:: '''Exessive''' (''nenijamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')

Chlouvānem does not have grammatical gender, and there are only a few natural gender terms. There are thirteen different noun declensions, but most of them only have few small differences. Chlouvānem declensions are predictable from the ending of the direct case noun, and they're categorized depending on their endings as ''s-'', ''m-'', or ''h-nouns''<ref>These are the remnants of a former gender system present in Proto-Lahob, still evident in other Lahob languages; unlike others in the family, Chlouvānem did not become genderless because of losing gender marking on nouns, but because it lost concordance anywhere else.</ref>.

There are some traits which are common to all nominal declensions: the vocative is only distinct in the singular; in the dual there is also no distinction between translative and dative, essive and locative, and between exessive, ablative, and instrumental.

|+1-s (-as, -ās, -o¹)

| prātan || prātaus || prātyoh

| prātat || prātābhan || prātāmān

| prātą || prātigin || prātēm

| '''kældus'''<br/><small>''"wax"''</small> || rowspan=2 | kældūt || rowspan=2 | kældaus

| kældu

| kældavu || kældūṣa || kældavih

| kældave || kældūya || kældūn

| kældavi || kældagva || kældǣmi

| kældun || kældugus || kælduyoh

| kældut || kældobhan || kældomān

| kældą || kældugin || kældavēm

| kældavom || kældugus || kældusām

| kældų || kældobhan || kældunīs

| kældave || kældugin || kældulīm

| kældup || kældobhan || kældunīka

| ḍhogin || ḍhogigus || ḍhogyoh

| ḍhogit || ḍhogebhan || ḍhogemān

| ḍhogę || ḍhogigin || ḍhogayēm

# Mostly toponyms of Toyubeshian origin (e.g. ''Paramito'').

===M- and N-nouns - Mamą naną no lā halenī===

|+1-m (-am, -ām, (-an, -ān, -en, -ēn))

| rowspan=2 | '''yujam'''<br/><small>''"lotus"''</small> || rowspan=2 | yujivā || rowspan=2 | yujāk

| yujaman || yujmį || yujmēt

| yujamat || yujabhan || yujamān

| yujmą || yujmenne || yujmēm

|+2-m (-um, -ūm, (-un, -ūn))

| tūluman || tūlvį || tūlūt

| tūlumat || tūlubhan || tūlumān

| tūlų || tūlunne || tūlugēm

|+3-m (-im, -īm, (-in, -īn))

| jāyiman || jāyį || jāyīt

| jāyimat || jāyibhan || jāyimān

| jāyį || jāyinne || jājñēm¹

|+1-m (n-paradigm)

| rowspan=2 | '''lilvan'''<br/><small>''"sash, belt"''</small> || rowspan=2 | lilvivā || rowspan=2 | lilvan

| lilvanu || lilunes² || lilunaih²

| lilunæ² || lilunian² || lilvanūn

| lilvani || liluneva² || lilvaṃrān

| lilvanan || lilunį² || lilunēt²

| lilvanat || lilvabhan || lilvanān

| liluną² || lilunenne² || lilunēm²

| lilvanom || lilunį² || lilvaṃsām

| lilvanų || lilvabhan || lilunenīs²

| lilvaṃrye || lilunenne² || lilunilīm²

| lilvanap || lilvabhan || lilvaṃrīka

|+1-h (-a, -ā, (-ah, -āh))

| '''māra'''<br/><small>''"mango"''</small> || rowspan=2 | mārāt || rowspan=2 | mārai

| māre

| māru || mārāṣa || māraih

| mārei || mārāra || mārān

| māri¹ || māreva || mārumi

| māran || mārarį || mārēt

| mārat || mārabhan || māremān

| māręs || māranne || mārēm

| mārom || mārarį || māresām

| mārų || mārabhan || mārenīs

| māre || māranne || mārelīm

| mārap || mārabhan || mārenīka

|+2-h (-ē, -eh, -ǣh²)

| '''javileh'''<br/><small>''"apple"''</small> || rowspan=2 | javilyāt || rowspan=2 | javilyai

| javilei

| javilyu || javilēṣa || javileih

| javilei || javilyāra || javilyān

| javili || javileva³ || javilyumi

| javilen || javilerį || javilēt

| javilet || javilebhan || javilemān

| javilęs || javilenne || javilēm

| javilyom || javilerį || javilesām

| javilių || javilebhan || javilenīs

| javilye || javilenne || javilelīm

| javilep || javilebhan || javilenīka

|+3-h (-uh, -ūh, -u⁴)

| '''ñaɂuh'''<br/><small>''"fruit skin"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ñaɂūt || rowspan=2 | ñaɂūvi

| ñaɂū

| ñaɂunu || ñaɂūṣa || ñaɂuyih

| ñaɂuyei || ñaɂura || ñaɂun

| ñaɂuyi || ñaɂuva || ñaɂūmi

| ñaɂun || ñaɂurį || ñaɂūt

| ñaɂut || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂumān

| ñaɂųs || ñaɂunne || ñaɂugem

| ñaɂuvom || ñaɂurį || ñaɂusām

| ñaɂųu || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīs

| ñaɂuve || ñaɂunne || ñaɂulīm

| ñaɂup || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīka

|+4-m (-ih, -īh, -i⁵)

| '''ghārṭih'''<br/><small>''"arrow"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ghārṭīt || rowspan=2 | ghārṭeyi

| ghārṭī

| ghārṭyu || ghārṭīṣa || ghārṭeyih

| ghārṭyei || ghārṭira || ghārṭin

| ghārṭīyi || ghārṭiva || ghārṭyumi

| ghārṭin || ghārṭirį || ghārṭīt

| ghārṭit || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭimān

| ghārṭįs || ghārṭinne || ghārṭiyem

| ghārṭyom || ghārṭirį || ghārṭisām

| ghārṭyų || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīs

| ghārṭye || ghārṭinne || ghārṭilīm

| ghārṭip || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīka

|+1-h (h-paradigm)

| '''raiṇah'''<br/><small>''"(piece of) cloth"''</small> || rowspan=2 | raiṇāt || rowspan=2 | raiṇai

| raiṇu || raiṇāṣa || raiṇaih

| raiṇei || raiṇāra || raiṇān

| raiṇi¹ || raiṇeva || raiṇumi

| raiṇan || raiṇarį || raiṇēt

| raiṇat || raiṇabhan || raiṇamān

| raiṇęs || raiṇanne || raiṇēm

| raiṇom || raiṇarį || raiṇasām

| raiṇų || raiṇabhan || raiṇanīs

| raiṇe || raiṇanne || raiṇalīm

| raiṇap || raiṇabhan || raiṇanīka

|+Ablaut declension

| rowspan=2 | '''lila'''<br/><small>''"person"''</small> || rowspan=2 | lilāt || rowspan=2 | lelyē

| lilu || lilāṣa || lelyu

| lilei || lilāra || lelyei

| leli || lileva || laili

| lilan || lilarį || lelyan

| lilat || lilabhan || lelyat

| liląs || lilanne || lailąs

| lilom || lilarį || lelyom

| lilų || lilabhan || lelyų

| lile || lilanne || laile

| lilap || lilabhan || lelyap

|+-oe declension

| rowspan=2 | '''haloe'''<br/><small>''"name"''</small> || rowspan=2 | halenāt || rowspan=2 | halenī

| halenu || halenāṣa || halenaih

| halenei || halenāya || halenān

| halenyes || halemva || haloemi

| halenan || halenaus || halenyoh

| halenat || haloebhan || haloemān

| halen || haloegin || haloem

| halenom || halenaus || haloesām

| halenų || haloebhan || haloenīs

| halenye || haloegin || halenilīm

| halenap || haloebhan || haloenīka

{{col-break}}

{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |

|+-ai declension

|-

|-

| rowspan=2 | '''lunai'''<br/><small>''"tea"''</small> || rowspan=2 | lunaiva || rowspan=2 | lunāye

|-

! <small>Vocative</small>

|-

! <small>Accusative</small>

|-

! <small>Ergative</small>

|-

|-

| lunain || lunāyį || lunāyēt

! <small>Exessive</small>

| lunait || lunaibhan || lunaimān

! <small>Essive</small>

| lunąis || lunainne || lunaigem

! <small>Dative</small>

| lunāyom || lunāyį || lunaisām

! <small>Ablative</small>

| lunāyų || lunaibhan || lunǣnīs

! <small>Locative</small>

| lunāye || lunainne || lunailīm

! <small>Instrumental</small>

| lunaip || lunaibhan || lunainīka

===Irregular plurals===

* The word ''chlǣvānem'' itself is plural-only and irregular; direct and vocative are in ''-em'', but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative ''chlǣvānānu'', ergative ''chlǣvānān'', genitive ''chlǣvānumi'');

* ''maila'' “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where ''mailāt'' is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural ''mailtvąa''. It declines as a ''singular'' 1h noun, with two exceptions, namely accusative in ''-ąu'' instead of expected *-ahu and genitive in ''-ąi'' instead of expected *-ahi. This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. ''taili mailtvahe hilælulke'', lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).<br/>The ''-tvąa'' semantic plural is also used for the word ''damītah'' when used for "petals" (''damītvąa''; the meaning of "nails" has the regular plural ''damītai''), and ''lairē'' (''lairtvąa'', which does not mean "skies" but "galaxy").

* ''resan'' "pig" and ''liken'' "arm" both have irregular plurals with vowel change: ''ryasan'' and ''læcin'' respectively.

* ''ås'' "ford, crossing of a small river" has the stem ''av-'' in all pre-vocalic forms (e.g. plural ''ave'').

* ''švas'' "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as ''švai'', as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.

* There are some pluralia tantum: ''pārāk'' “hair”, ''kāraṇḍhai'' “guts”, also ''agṇyaucai'' “sons and daughters”, ''aryai'' "square", ''katanai'' "clutter", ''vailašaus'' "cutlery", ''šūlyakāše'' "dishes", and all ethnonyms.

** Some pluralia tantum are the plural forms of nouns with other (usually related) meanings - when they are used as semantic plurals, they're counted with cardinal numerals (and are singular); when they are used as pluralia tantum, with collective numerals (and are plural). Examples are ''hamvyenī'' "nursery" (''hamvyoe'' "cradle"), ''įsmirte'' "playground" (''įsmirtas'' "swing"), ''nacai'' "clothes" (''naca'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''lairtvąa'' "galaxy" (''lairē'' "sky").

*** This is often used in poetry, with words like ''mešanāt'' "eyes" - dual of ''mešanah'' "view". In many set phrases, ''læcin'' "arms" is used with the meaning of "work, effort".

** Many toponyms in the Inquisition and a few ones abroad are only ever used in the plural. Island groups are an obvious example, but this also includes descriptive names of dioceses such as ''Vīdhyašaṇṭrē'' ("regions of the Vīdhyai"), ''Samvālšaṇṭrē'' (lit. "the Western Regions"), and many cities even with originally non-Chlouvānem names such as ''Kašikanye'' (episcopal seat of Saṃhayolah), ''Rīkalīnai'' (episcopal seat of Dārṭijātia), or ''Kareñjoklai'' (episcopal seat of Yūgarthāma).

* A few nouns are singularia tantum: ''hærṣūs'' “lips”, ''maula'' “breasts”, ''kanai'' “spices”, ''paɂeh'' “dust”, ''nāmvāvi'' “dust (made by crushing something)”, ''narmis'' “ash”, ''ñailūh'' “ice”; ''lāsīm'' "cereals" (individual terms for cereals may have duals and plurals meaning "two/more varieties of ..."), ''mæchlišam'' "leafy greens", ''mæcichā'' "spinach", and ''bågras'' "legumes" with all types of legumes (''dīlla'' "peas", ''mahīra'' "lentils", ''miltai'' "soybeans"...)

* Dvandva compounds are usually all dual and pluralizable - like ''yāṇḍamaišñukam'' “genitals”, or also many dyadic kinship terms (e.g. ''maihāmeinā'' “daughter and mother”) - but some of them are inherently “singular” and therefore are dual only, like ''lillamurḍhyāyunya'' (how some philosophical Yunyalīlti currents refer to the ''yunya'' “nature” and the ''lillamurḍhyā'' “natural harmony” as two aspects of the same thing). Note that dual inflections are not present on the noun itself in direct and vocative forms.

* Toponyms (except inherently dual or plural ones), personal names, and miscellaneous things that are semantically only singular (like many Yunyalīlti concepts, e.g. ''yunya'' or ''lillamurḍhyā'') are found exclusively in the singular.

Five very common words have common, irregular, vocative forms:

* ''ñæltah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñæli'' or ''ñæl''

* ''glūkam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū''

* ''meinā'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''mē''

* ''udhyāras'' "Comrade" — ''udhyā'' (rarely ''udhyār'')

===Use of the plural===

* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''dani'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''læti'' (any), ''gu'' (no), ''guviṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''nanū'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).

** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva kita'' "every house", ''yaiva kitai'' "all houses".

* Similarly, demonstratives already encode number on their own, and the noun is therefore singular, e.g. ''nenē kita'' "this house", ''eṣāne kita'' "these two houses", ''ānane kita'' "these (pl.) houses".

* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. ''dvārma læjlęs virā'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''læjlai mæn dvārma virā'' "the chairs are in the room".

* When referring to a single person, ''dhāna'' (hand), ''mešīn'' (eye), and ''minnūlia'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''pājya'' (leg) and ''liken'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''nanau mešīp mešute'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".

* ''junyoe'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mæska'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''varṇaigīk'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.

 

==Verbs (''daradhaus'')==

The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.

The first and most important division we can find in Chlouvānem verbs is the distinction - a category called, with noticeable metaphorical use, '''''chlærim''''' (light) by native grammarians - between '''exterior '''(''kauyāva'') and '''interior''' (''nañyāva'') verbs. This may at first seem a voice system, but it must be distinguished from the true voices in Chlouvānem conjugation. The difference between them is mostly lexical: native grammarians distinguish exterior verbs as describing "activities or states that involve interactions with outside the self", and interior verbs as affecting principally the self. Exterior verbs are those we could most easily compare to active verbs in English, while interior verbs are a somewhat "catch-all" category including many distinct meanings, most notably middle-voice, reflexive and reciprocal ones, but also all adjectival verbs as well as peculiar and somewhat independent meanings for some verbs. Many verbs can be conjugated both as exterior and as interior and they often have differences in meaning - e.g. ''gṇyauke ''means “to give birth” when exterior and “to be born” when interior - commonly, the interior has the intransitive meaning and the exterior the transitive one - cf. ''lęlširu'' "I shake" vs. ''lęlšute'' "I shake (something)".

: ''→ See [[Chlouvānem/Exterior_and_interior_verbs|Chlouvānem exterior and interior verbs]] for a more thorough explanation of these forms.''

 

Potentially every Chlouvānem verb form, no matter if exterior or interior, has a '''causative''' (''drildyāva'') conjugation which is considered an inflection and not a derivation, even if the meanings may vary: ''mišake'' is an extreme example as each form has a different meaning (with particularly interior forms having many meanings) - non-causative exterior ''mešu'' "I am seen", interior ''meširu'' "I know; I see myself"; and causative exterior ''maišildu'' "I am shown", interior ''maišīldru'' "I learn; I show myself <small>(trans.)</small>".

 

Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs:

* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked);

* '''agent-trigger''' (''darīnūkire tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only);

* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe'');

* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe'');

* '''locative-trigger''' (''yuñcūkire tadgeroe'');

* '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausire tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs);

* '''instrumental-trigger'''  (''drausire tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful).

Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' (''tailcārē tadgeroe'')<ref>For simplicity's sake, voices' names are most often rendered as ''patientive'', ''agentive'', ''benefactive'' ''antibenefactive'', ''locative'', ''dative'', ''instrumental'', and ''common''.</ref>.

Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikire avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdenire avyāṣa''<ref>Sometimes ''ēktami avyāṣa''.</ref>), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajausire avyāṣa''), '''(general) future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''), and '''future intentional''' (''osmešē lallāmiti avyāṣa''); other distinctions may be built periphrastically (most notably ''imperfect'', ''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect). Note that some moods do only distinguish between imperfective and perfective aspect.<br/>Realis verbs are furthermore marked for evidentiality: categories marked are visual evidentiality<ref>This same marker, usually a zero marker, is also used for historically attested facts and scientific truths.</ref>, non-visual evidentiality, reportative, and two different inferentials, one marking trust in and the other unlikelyness of the fact.<br/>Politeness is also encoded in the verb, but this inflection is often considered to be a form of the separate, defective auxiliary verb ''tilah''.

The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined:

* '''indicative''' (''chlåñjausire darišam'') - the realis mood;

* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.

There are a few more forms that can't be strictly considered moods because they can appear in all of the five actual moods, and are thus called '''''junya''''', pl. '''''junyai''''' (literally "shade, hue, dye") by Chlouvānem grammarians: they are actually regular derivational patterns, that are considered inflectional due to them being possible for all verbs. There are five ''junyai'':

* '''desiderative''' (''daudyūkire junya'') - used to express a desire or will (e.g. I want to X);

* '''necessitative''' (''rileyūkire junya'') - used to express need or obligation (e.g. I have to X);

* '''potential''' (''novire junya'') - used to express the ability to do something (e.g. I can [= am able to] X, also "I may [= it is possible that I] X")

* '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junya'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X)

* '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness.

Finally, there are a further two forms which are called "secondary moods" (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye''). They are two '''consequential moods''', the first one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), and the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).<br/>

Chlouvānem furthermore also have a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter).

 

===Verb classes===

When talking about the regularity in the conjugation of Chlouvānem verbs, most Chlouvānem linguists consider the vast majority of verbs as regular. In fact, the same suffixes are used in conjugating almost all verbs and highly irregular verbs are often only small exceptions (''jalle'' "to be" and ''lulke'' "to go on foot (monodirectional)" are the most notable ones, having many suppletive stems). However, despite this regularity, Chlouvānem verbs are divided into lots of small classes, each one having only a few members, that have different stem vowels in various forms - typically, the 3SG forms of the present, past, and perfect are used as principal parts (with the infinitive often - but not always! - having the same vowel as the present).

 

The thematic and athematic distinction is the easiest: '''thematic verbs''' add an ''-a-'' (''-e-'' in the 3SG visual past and in all present indicative causative exterior terminations) between its root and every consonantic termination; '''athematic verbs''' don't. All verbs with vowel-ending roots are athematic.

 

Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to twelve verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs:

# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''.

# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'')

# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kirake'' "to love": ''kairē — kirek — ikira''.

# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''.

# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''.

# These verbs have '''ei''' in the present, '''a''' in the past, and '''a+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''heimake'' "to blow, to play (wind instruments)" ''heimē — hamek — ahima''.

# Verbs with '''e''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''i+ i''' in the perfect (and infinitive!); e.g. ''miṃsake'' "to risk" ''meṃsē — myaṃsek — imiṃsa''.

# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''o''' in the past, and '''e+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''næljake'' "to turn, to screw": ''næljē — noljek — enilja''.

# Verbs with '''o''' in the present, '''ei''' in the past, and '''a+ ā''' in the perfect; e.g. ''volkake'' "to stab, to sting (esp. insects), to hit with something pointy": ''volkē — veilkek — avālka''.

# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''e+ ī''' in the perfect; e.g. ''kællake'' "to sew": ''kællē — kyallek — ekīlla''.

# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''yau''' in the past, and '''u+ u''' in the perfect; e.g. ''nætte'' "to hold": ''nættē — nyauttek — unutta''.

# Also called '''-ah verbs''', these verbs actually never modify their root vowel, but have different present endings. ''hæṃdike'' "to dream", ''jānake'' "to feel", and ''lilke'' "to live" are the most common verbs of this class.

 

 

Vocalic stems are those whose stems end in a vowel; most of them are class 1 (without any vowel change), but some are class 2 (ablauting), more rarely of other classes. They are anyway somewhat rare in Chlouvānem, but a few common verbs have vocalic stems. These stems often do not behave as in normal vowel saṃdhi when vocalic terminations are added:

* The diphthongs '''ai, ei, au''', and their breathy-voiced versions mute the second element in a semivowel; in '''ai''' and '''au''' the vowel is naturally lengthened to '''ā''' - e.g. ''gṇyauke'' "to give birth", pres. exterior ''gṇyāvu, gṇyāvi, gṇyāvē''...; past exterior ''gṇyāvau, gṇyāvei, gṇyauk''...

* The short vowels '''i, u, ṛ''' and long '''ṝ''' change into their corresponding semivowels if it forms an accepted cluster - e.g. ''vike'' "to rest" (ablauting stem ''ve-'' in the present), past exterior ''vyau, vyei, vik''...

* '''æ''' and '''ǣ''' become '''ev''' and '''oe''' becomes '''en''' - e.g. ''gæke'' "to stretch", pres. exterior ''gevu, gevi, gevē''...; past exterior ''gevau, gevei, gæk''...

* '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''lyēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''lyēnu, lyēni, lyēnē''...; past exterior ''lyēnau, lyēnei, lyēk''.

* All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''...

* Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē<ref>Written ''švęe'' in some older texts.</ref>''...; past ext. ''švehau, švehei, švęk''...

 

In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are:

* ''-tyāke'' (all verbs meaning "to stay", such as ''tatyāke'') — ''-timē, -tyāk, -(ɂ)atyā''

* ''vjyāke'' (to grate, grind) — ''vjimē, vjyāk, avjyā''

===The causative and perfect stems===

Causative stems are easy to form: they are formed by attaching the stem extension ''-ild-'' (see below) to the infinitive stem; however, ablauting verbs always have the highest grade vowel, while inverse ablaut verbs have the "lowered" vowel in front of the normal stem (e.g. ''miš-'' → ''maiš-ild-'').

The perfect stem (used for the perfect and for the intentional future) formed by prefixing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem - but note that verb classes 5 to 10 have their own vowel patterns that diverge from this general one. Examples:

* ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-''

* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-''

* ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-''

'''æ''', '''o''', '''å''', and '''ṛ''' all use '''a''' (except for ''ṛ-'' initial verbs, which have ''ṝ-''); diphthongs usually only take their first component, exceptions being '''ai''' (→ e) and '''au''' (→ o):

* ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → adæld-''