Chlouvānem/Morphology: Difference between revisions

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==Nouns (''halenī'') ==

The [[Chlouvānem]] noun (''haloe'', pl. ''halenī'') is highly inflected - it declines for:


:: '''Genitive''' (''cārūkire dirūnnevya'')


:: '''Translative''' (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')


:: '''Essive''' (''jalausire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Dative''' (''męlyausire dirūnnevya'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''hærūm'' lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. ''chlǣvānem'', which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''chlǣvānumi lila'' (a Chlouvānem).<br/>

===S-nouns - Sasą lā halenī===

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! <small>Ablative</small>

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! <small>Locative</small>

: ''maihadhūt'' "parents", ''grembātatālunāt'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)

Counted among pluralia tantums are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-yūs'', generally identifying a person from a certain city (e.g. ''līlasuṃghāṇyūs'', ''ajāɂilbādhyūs'') – but note ''yacvānyūs'' "Westerner" – are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-yaus'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':

# many collective nouns:

# feelings and sensations:

#: ''lācāh'' "romantic love", ''læchlyoe'' "fun", ''ǣlna'' "sadness"

A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:

* The word ''chlǣvānem'' itself is plural-only (like all ethnonyms) and irregular; direct and vocative are in ''-em'', but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative ''chlǣvānānu'', ergative ''chlǣvānān'', genitive ''chlǣvānumi'');

* Nouns with non-standard final endings (except ''chlǣvānem'') are declined by unpacking the vowel through regular saṃdhi and applying the resulting declension to the newfound root, with regular saṃdhi. The most common such nouns are ''gos'' "ford, crossing of a small river" (ga-us; gen.sg. ''ge'' (ga-i), pl. ''gaus'' (ga-aus)) and ''khaim'' "goose" (khā-im; pl. ''khaik'' (khā-īk)).

* ''švas'' "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as ''švai'', as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.

===Use of the plural===

Chlouvānem sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:

** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva kita'' "every house", ''yaiva kitai'' "all houses".

* When referring to a single person, ''dhāna'' (hand), ''mešīn'' (eye), and ''minnūlya'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''pājya'' (leg) and ''molnya'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''nanau mešīp mešute'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".

* ''junyoe'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mæska'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''varṇaigīk'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.

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! rowspan=3 | 3SG is equal to... !! Listener

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! both Speaker and Listener

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! Speaker

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! rowspan=3 | 3SG is lower than...  !! Listener

====Pronominal declension====

The pronominal declension has two variants: one used for the first person pronouns and another for the 2nd person ones. First person pronouns are the most archaic: they have a single-phoneme stem in all cases bar the direct, and a different stem in the direct case ('''lili''', derived from the original pronoun *li, in the singular, and suppletive '''amūt''' and '''amūvi''' in the dual and plural respectively).<br/>The second person pronouns are a Pre-Chlouvānem innovation, from the original short stem attached to the demonstrative ''ami'', and therefore they follow that word's declension. However, the original short stems are kept as alternative, shorter forms, for the accusative, ergative, and dative cases. Second-person plural pronouns exist, but are virtually unused outside of Archaic Chlouvānem.

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* '''lallāmaha''' - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with ''yamei''. Inquisitors may also be referred to as ''lallāmaha + <small>matronymic</small> + yamei + <small>given name</small> + murkadhāna (lāma)''

* '''jūlin''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.

* '''jāmilšīreh''' - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.

* '''udhyā(ras)''' - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form '''yamei dāvudhyāre'''. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of ''товарищ''. It is also how high-ranked Inquisitors and most monks address the general public.<br/>Note that ''udhyāras'' is the direct form, ''udhyā'' the irregular vocative.

* '''brausamailenya''' — Baptist — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire lallāmaha'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [surname + given name] ''brausamailenia lāma''.

* '''camitorai''' — president (of diocesan parliaments or executives or of foreign countries). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic (if Chlouvānem)] ''yamei'' [name] ''camitorai lāma''.

* '''plušamelīs''' (voc.: ''plušamelī'') — Prefect (head of an Office (''plušamila'') of the Inquisition). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''plušamelī(s) lāma''.

* '''gatvā''' — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (''ṣramāṇa'' "province", ''lalka'' "circuit", ''hālgāra'' "district", ''marta'' "city"…).

* '''hurdagīn''' — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as ''kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma'' (+ monastery name-<small>GEN</small>)<ref>Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as ''[…] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga gūltayi'' but as ''[…] laliājuniāmiti jāṇi camilālta lāma'', literally "Great Guardian of the Field of the Night Bloom".</ref>

* '''lallamurkadhāna''' — High Inquisitor (one of the 612 members of the Inquisitorial Conclave (''murkadhānumi lanedāmeh'', the legislative branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallamurkadhāna lāma''.

* '''ñæltryam''' — monk.

===Correlatives===

In some cases, the choice between a collective and a cardinal is stylistic. While for example concepts such as "we are..." or "I have ... children" do normally use the collective (e.g. ''tulūɂatām ñæltah jalim'' "we are six sisters/a group of six reciprocal brothers and sisters"; ''lili mæn nęltitām nūrya'' "I have four children"), even if using a cardinal isn't wrong, in a sentence such as "there are X people" both versions are found, with the collective-using sentence (e.g. ''dvārma vælditāmą lilęs virā'' "in the room there are eleven people") being perceived as more formal than the more colloquially heard cardinal-using version (i.e. ''dvārma vældąs lilęs virā'').

'''Adverbial numerals''' are adverbs with the meaning of "X times" and '''multiplicative numbers''' are adjective-like words (that can also be used alone) with the meaning of "X times as large"; numbers from 1 to 4 have both forms, while all other ones (except 0) have only the multiplicative one, which is used for both meanings. Examples: ''pāmvirvīm yąloe'' "triple meal/a meal three times as large"; ''āsena māgdani'' "twice a month"; ''āsena mbularvīm'' "eight times a month".<br/>

===Basic maths===

* 1 + 2 = 3

* 3 - 2 = 1

: pāmvi ''isan'' dani emibå ''lunade'' (3.<small>DIR</small>. minus. 2.<small>DIR</small>. 1-<small>DAT</small> go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: A^DIR ''isan'' B^DIR (''isan'' ...) C^DAT ''lunade'' (two addends) / ''lunāhai'' (3+ addends)

====Length====

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! lūj

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! pā

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! gar

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The ''våṇṭa'' may or may not be written as a separate measure. A measure of 1 ''jāṇa'' and 700 ''dvāmāryai'' may be written as ''1 jā.700 (dvā)'' (most commonly) or as ''1 jā.1.100 (dvā)''.

{| class="redtable lightredbg"

* the ''ręnah'' ("jar, urn", '''rę'''), equivalent to 6 pur (~5.625 L).

====Temperature====

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Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''remīn'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (''natemālāhai remīn''), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (''ūtimāhai remīn''), and "exclamatory particles" (''pigdilanah nali remīn'').

===Conjunctive particles===

Conjunctive particles may not stand syntactically alone and, with a few exceptions, don't require any particular case of a noun. Most of them function, or are also used, as conjunctions between sentences.

* '''jahān''' — anyway (conjunction or second position adverb)

* '''lai''' — inclusive or

* '''najelai''' — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of ''najalle'' (to happen). Sentence-final, requires a verb in the subjunctive mood, e.g. ''yahatite najelai'' "maybe I'll read it".

* '''nānim''' — almost; if used with nouns, requires essive case.

* '''ni''' — but (in second position)

* '''no''' — and (in complete listings, cf. ''las''); same placement as ''las''. Also used to conjoin sentences, but ''sama'' is preferred, especially when there are different subjects (triggered arguments).

* '''pū''' — if (and '''pūmbu''' "whether") - see [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Conditional_sentences|Chlouvānem syntax § Conditional sentences]]

* '''sama''' ('''sam''' before vowels) — and (between sentences only, cf. ''las'' and ''no'')

* '''tadye''' — despite that (between sentences), cf. ''tatta''.

* '''tatta''' — despite, even though; requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb (e.g. ''gu talunīs ša tatta dadrā'' "even though you didn't come, it has been done."). Colloquially, it is also used anaphorically, instead of ''tadye''; however, it is considered bad style in formal language.

* '''vivāmi''' — "too much", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage.

* '''væse''' — while, in the meantime; "during (the)" with nouns. Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood or a noun in the essive (or, meaning-dependant, exessive or translative) case.

These particles can never stand alone, do not conjoin sentences, and nearly always require a particular noun case.

* '''dam''' — interrogative particle in polar questions, put after the verb (e.g. ''daltah vi dam?'' "is it a fish?")

* '''e''' — like. Requires essive case with nouns and subjunctive mood with verbs.

* '''ga''' — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles or proper names, but not honorifics), e.g. ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' "Līlasuṃghāṇa city" or ''Tāllahārya ga maita'' "Tāllahārya river".

* '''gu(n) ~ ša''' — negative circumposition used around verbs, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsegde ša'' "(s)he does not want to eat". The first element is ''gun'' before vowels; the ''ša'' element is omitted if the verb is attributive.

* '''lā''' — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. ''lilyą ñæltęs lā'' "with my sister"). The Archaic Chlouvānem form was ''lapi''.

* '''lut''' — used with expressions of time: means "ago" if used with ablative case (''nęlcų heirų lut'' "four years ago"), "for/since" if with essive case (''nęlcą heiręs lut'' "for four years").

* '''mei''' and '''go''' — "yes" and "no", used according to the polarity of the question; i.e. ''mei'' denotes the statement is true ("yes" to affirmative questions, "no" to negative questions), while ''go'' denotes the statement is false ("no" to affirmative questions, "yes" to negative questions).

* '''mæn''' — [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Use of the topic|marks a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence]].

* '''vādį''' — without, with essive or subjunctive. Unlike English, it cannot be used anaphorically.

* "either... or..." is easily translated by the exclusive or (''mbu''). It is commonly only used after the second term, but it can be put after every term for emphasis:

===Emphatic particles===

Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.

===Compounds===

====Dvandva (''emibądanīs'')====

: ''lācāh kraṣṭāmita no lillāmita no demigretas no lelyēmita no'' "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family" → ''lācākraṣṭāmitālillāmitādemigretālelyēmitai'' "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family"

: ''sam + jildas'' "after + act" → *sañjildas → ''sañjilde'' "consequently"

: ''naš(e) + sṝva'' "full, complete + extent" → *nakṣṝva → ''nakṣṝve'' "as much as possible"

* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvūm'' (sweet taste)

* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašukāram'' (raindrop)

'''-anah''', with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.<br/>

'''-oe''' (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.

* ''hal-'' (to call) → ''haloe'' (name, noun)

* ''yųl-'' (to eat) → ''yąloe'' (meal)

* Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either ''h'', ''s'', or ''m'') do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ''ñaryāh'' (mountain) → ''ñaryāmis'' (mountainous area)).

'''-dhūs''' means "having X".

* ''Ajāɂilbādhi'' → ''ajāɂilbādhyūs''

'''-yai''' (often with lengthening) forms nouns with the meaning of "pertaining to", generally applied to nouns denoting inanimate (but usually concrete) concepts. Such nouns are found in literature with an anaphorical use.<br/>It is commonly found in Chlouvānem surnames. In chemistry, it denotes binary compounds, usually with a dvandva stem.

* ''rahēlah'' (health) → ''rahēlṣenike'' (healthy)

* ''nakṣuma'' (music) → ''nakṣuṃṣenike'' (having a musical talent)

====Compound verbs====

Chlouvānem uses compound verbs as its main method of deriving verbs from nouns. Such "verbs" are actually a nominal root which does not decline followed by a conjugating verb. The verb used influences the meaning that the compound will have:

* ''dṛke'' (to do) is probably the most commonly used, and may have a meaning of using something (denoted by the nominal root) to treat something else (cf. ''bikṣurdṛke'' "to deodorize" < ''bikṣurga'' "deodorant"), of moving or acting like the nominal root (''yināṃdṛke'' "to protect" < ''yinām'' "protection"), or of simply having or creating something (''āmayadṛke'' "to collect" < ''āmaya'' "collection").

* ''męlike'' (to give) is sometimes used with the same meaning as ''kitte'' (cf. ''junyāmęlike'' "to plant flowers" < ''junyā'' "flower").

* ''jilde'' (to act) is used for subjects "emitting" or "giving off" something (cf. ''lāhajilde'' "to judge" < ''lāham'' "judgement"), also for subjects possessing (''dhokajilde'' "to mean" < ''dhokam'' "meaning") or undergoing something (''lañšijilde'' "to marry" < ''lañši'' (arch.) braid, wedding), and also for weather phenomena<ref>Rain, specifically, is more commonly used as the subject of the verb ''buñjñake'', meaning "to run" for water (in Chl. rain runs just like a river does).</ref> (''dašajilde'' "to rain" < ''daša'' "rain").

* ''gyake'' (to be) is used, like in one meaning of ''dṛke'', for moving or acting like the nominal root. Typically, it is more for states than actions (the prototypical and most common example is ''pṛšcāṃgyake'' "to be pleasing" < ''pṛšcām'' "something pleasing"<ref>The word ''pṛšcām'' alone is almost never used in contemporary Chlouvānem.</ref>).

* ''milke'' (to take) has a varied range of meaning: getting or gathering something (''vīrādhmilke'' "to adopt" < ''vīrādhen'' "orphan";  ''mailьlut(a)milke'' "to take advantage" < ''mailьluta'' "advantage"), also the opposite, taking something away (cf. ''rantamilke'' "to peel (fruits)" < ''rantas'' "peel"), and also overlapping partially with ''kitte'' and ''męlike'' in marking the addition of something or, more, properly, the act of bringing something (''prātamilke'' "to get windy; (''figur.'') to accelerate" < ''prātas'' "wind" - cf. ''prātajilde'' "to be windy").

* ''bismilke'' (to take away) and ''bīdṛke'' (to destroy) are used, more commonly than ''milke'', for the meaning of removing or taking something away: (''ssūbismilke'' "to calm down" < ''ssūgis'' "something that worries"; ''lilembīdṛke'' "(''euphem.'') to kill" < ''liloe'' "life").

* ''ān- 〜 yana-'' - on, above

* ''šu- 〜 šer-'' - under, below

* ''gin- 〜 ją-'' - among

* ''nī- 〜 ani-'' - within/from within inside

* ''bis- 〜 bara-'' - far, away

* ''tad-'' <small>(''tata-'' before '''l''')</small> ''〜 tasi-'' - attached to; against

* ''kau- 〜 kuvi-'' - outside

* ''viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa-'' - opposite; somewhere else

* ''mai- 〜 mīram-'' - in front of

* ''vai- 〜 vǣ-'' - in a corner; bordering; at the limit