@@ Line 48: / Line 48: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lære prājānye lārvājuṣom lili peithau.
+| phrase = lære prājānye lārvājuṣom lili mbyaṇḍhau.
 | gloss = yesterday. evening-<small>LOC.SG</small>. temple-<small>DAT.SG</small>. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.PAST.IND-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went to the temple on foot.
+}}
+====Epiphrasis====
+Epiphrasis (''prīkitās'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order. Epiphrastic triggered arguments are mostly limited to the literary language, while other epiphrastic arguments are quite common in everyday speech:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = lili ladragyale pūnu, lilyā glūkam no.
+| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. inn-<small>LOC.SG</small>. work-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1SG.GEN.DIR</small>. female's_brother.<small>DIR.SG</small>. and.
+| translation = I work at the inn, and my brother too.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = pāmvyu naviṣyu mešute, ānotē phēcamu no.
+| gloss = three-<small>ACC</small>. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. see-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. lie_on-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. cat-<small>ACC.SG</small>. and.
+| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
 }}
@@ Line 72: / Line 85: @@
 Topics are very commonly used to mark a broad context, acting as a sort of "heading" for a sequence of otherwise seemingly unrelated sentences:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nāmñē mæn švai chlǣvānumi maichleyuñci, jaryāmaile lilah, soramiya mušigērisilīm tora, ñikumi viṣam haloe līlas vi no. nenēhu līlasuṃghāṇa ga camimarti haloe gṇyāvire.
+| phrase = nāmñē mæn švai chlǣvānumi maichleyuñci, jaryāmaile lilah, soramiya mušigērisilīm tan, ñikumi viṣam haloe līlas vi no. nenēhu līlasuṃghāṇa ga camimarti haloe gṇyāvire.
 | gloss = nāmñē.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. animal-<small>DIR.PL.</small> Chlouvānem-<small>GEN.PL</small>. south-<small>GEN.SG.</small>. – seawater-<small>LOC.SG</small>. live-<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3PL.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. – sometimes. tidal.lake-<small>LOC.PL</small>. also. – cub-<small>GEN.PL</small>. other.<small>DIR</small>. name.<small>DIR.SG.</small>. līlas.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. and. — this-<small>ABL</small>. Līlasuṃghāṇa.<small>DIR</small>. <small>ADP</small>. capital.city-<small>GEN.SG</small>. name.<small>DIR.SG</small>. give.birth-<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = Nāmñai<ref>A kind of tropical seal, iconic and sacred in Chlouvānem culture.</ref> are animals of the Southern Inquisition that live in seawater and sometimes can also be found in tidal lakes; another name for their cubs is "līlas". This is the source of the name of the Chlouvānem capital Līlasuṃghāṇa.
@@ Line 167: / Line 180: @@
 }}
 ====Zero-copular sentences====
-Zero-copular sentences are permitted in Chlouvānem, but only in certain cases; note that, in any case, leaving the copula is still correct, even if often not the use a native would do. The omission of the copula, however, is only permitted in the present tense.<br/>The copula is nearly always omitted when the subject is a determiner (i.e. ''nenē'', ''nunū'', ''sora'', ''læti'', etc., often possessive pronouns too), and when the predicate is an undeclinable adjective-like word (i.e. ''cami'', ''lalla'', ''hulābdān'', etc.):
+Zero-copular sentences are permitted in Chlouvānem, but only in certain cases; note that, in any case, leaving the copula is still correct, even if often not the use a native would do. The omission of the copula, however, is only permitted in the present tense.<br/>The copula is nearly always omitted when the subject is a determiner (i.e. ''nenē'', ''nunū'', ''sora'', ''grāṇa'', etc., often possessive pronouns too), and when the predicate is an undeclinable adjective-like word (i.e. ''cami'', ''lalla'', ''hulābdān'', etc.):
 {{Gloss
 | phrase = nunū lilyai buneyi jṛṣṇa.
@@ Line 174: / Line 187: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų nanū lalla.
+| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų širē lalla.
 | gloss = Dāneh.<small>DIR</small>. Dulmaidana-<small>ABL</small>. more. tall.
 | translation = Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana.
@@ Line 226: / Line 239: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = jāyim palyu junikte : ni nenichladirya meinei muṣkemālchek.
+| phrase = jāyim palyu junikte : ni nanichladirya meinei muṣkemālchek.
 | gloss = girl.<small>DIR.SG</small>. face-<small>ACC.SG</small>. paint.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. – but. hurry.<small>SUBJ.IMPF-3SG.INTERIOR</small>. mother-<small>ERG.SG</small>. ask-<small>INF</small>-run.<small>MULTIDIR-IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = The girl was painting her [own] face, but her mother kept asking her to hurry.
@@ Line 265: / Line 278: @@
 This sentence, on the other hand, uses the perfect tense; while wrong in English, this construction is possible - and, in fact, is frequently heard - though it often only makes sense in a broader context. For example, in a sentence like “yesterday it rained and the path collapsed, so we can’t walk there”, English uses both times a simple past, while Chlouvānem uses the perfect, as the path is still not walkable due to the rain:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lære menni dašejilda līlta viṣustura no, āñjulā gu pepeithnāsme ša.
+| phrase = lære menni dašejilda līlta viṣustura no, āñjulā gu mimbeṇḍhṇāsme ša.
 | gloss = yesterday. because. rain-do.<small>IND.PERF-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. path.<small>DIR.SG</small>. collapse.<small>IND.PERF-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. and. – therefore. <small>NEG</small>=walk.<small>MULTIDIR-POT-1DU.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
 | translation = Yesterday it rained and the path collapsed, so we two can’t walk there.
@@ Line 314: / Line 327: @@
 The perfect may also be used in a meaning comparable to the English present perfect continuous. This interpretation is not extremely common, except for a small set of common verbs, including most notably ''ñumike'' "to wait", ''kaminairīveke'' "to study", ''maimęlike'' "to prepare" (particularly in interior forms), ''tildake'' "to watch (agentive)" (and ''mišake'' "to see" when part of the locution ''chlæviṭu mišake'' "to watch TV"), ''khluke'' "to look for", and most multidirectional motion verbs when a destination is not specified.
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = garaṇęs lut nāṭ epeithra.
+| phrase = garaṇęs lut nāṭ imbiṇḍhra.
 | gloss = hour-<small>ESS.SG</small>. since. already. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.IND.PERF-EXP-1D.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = The two of us have already been walking for an hour.
@@ Line 324: / Line 337: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = sān uñumiram.
+| phrase = sāmīn uñumiram.
 | gloss = <small>2SG.INFORMAL-TRANSL</small>. wait.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = I have been waiting for you.
+}}
+=====Experiential=====
+As in English and other languages, the Chlouvānem perfect may contrast with the past in having an experiential meaning contrasting with an episodic one:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = kimbahēšye rem.
+| gloss = Kimbahēši-<small>LOC</small>. be.<small>IND.PERF.EXP.1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = I have been to/in Kimbahēši [at some point in time].
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = kimbahēšye nīvau.
+| gloss = Kimbahēši-<small>LOC</small>. be.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = I was in Kimbahēši [in that specific moment].
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = kimbahēšye rem dam?
+| gloss = Kimbahēši-<small>LOC</small>. be.<small>IND.PERF.EXP.1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>INTERR</small>.
+| translation = Have you ever been to/in Kimbahēši?
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = kimbahēšye nīvau dam?
+| gloss = Kimbahēši-<small>LOC</small>. be.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>INTERR</small>.
+| translation = Were you in Kimbahēši [then]?
 }}
@@ Line 429: / Line 465: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = luvāyom peithiṣyara.
+| phrase = luvāyom mbiṇḍhiṣyara.
 | gloss = market-<small>DAT.SG</small>. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.IND.FUT-EXP-1DU.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = We will be walking to the market.
 }}
-Note how ''peithake'', the multidirectional verb of the "to walk" pair, is considered atelic here; in fact, its telic reading is forced by using the monodirectional counterpart ''lulke'':
+Note how ''mbiṇḍhe'', the multidirectional verb of the "to walk" pair, is considered atelic here; in fact, its telic reading is forced by using the monodirectional counterpart ''lulke'':
 {{Gloss
 | phrase = luvāyom luniṣyara.
@@ Line 470: / Line 506: @@
 Atelic verbs, however, still use the simple future for duties and set plans; as the second example shows, arguments that provide an end point do not change the inherent atelicity of the verb, leaving it in the future simple.
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = keike peithiṣyam.
+| phrase = keike mbiṇḍhiṣyam.
 | gloss = courtyard.<small>LOC.SG</small>. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.IND.FUT-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = I will keep walking in the courtyard. ~ I am to walk around in the courtyard.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = primęlirēti sām keike peithiṣyam.
+| phrase = primęlirēti sām keike mbiṇḍhiṣyam.
 | gloss = return.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-2SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. until. courtyard.<small>LOC.SG</small>. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.IND.FUT-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = I will keep walking in the courtyard until you['ll have] come back.
@@ Line 501: / Line 537: @@
 The same form can be expressed by the infinitive plus the auxiliary verb ''įstyāke'' or ''maityāke'', e.g. ''luvāyom lulkayįstetimu'' (lulke-įs‹te›tim-u) "I am walking to the store right now".
+Generally the only difference between ''gam'' and ''īgam'' is that the latter carries more emphasis; however, only ''īgam'' can be used at the beginning of a sentence.
 =====''lā''=====
@@ Line 515: / Line 553: @@
 =====''lut''=====
 The particle ''lut'' (otherwise meaning "ago" or "for, since" with nouns) is typically used in the past to denote the perfect continuous, i.e. an ongoing action that had started previously. It follows a verb in the imperfective subjunctive, and is also used together with ''jalle'', like the previous particles.
-* ''maihadhūt primęlirdat ātiya samin pudbhī lut nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were already sleeping.
+* ''maihadhūt primęlirlat ātiya nūryai pudbhī lut nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were already sleeping.
 * ''cūllap vasīnam lut nyābhe sama sīsyupikę e lališenu tattedāmābhe.'' — We were already going by car when (lit. "and") we discovered the tragic news.
 The main difference between this form and a general progressive action marked by ''lā'' is that ''lut'' places a stronger emphasis on the starting point of the action being in the past, rather than on the action being still ongoing in the [relative] present. In the English translations above, this has been hinted at by using "already"; compare the first example rendered with ''lā'':
-* ''maihadhūt primęlirdat ātiya samin pudbhī lā nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were sleeping.
+* ''maihadhūt primęlirdat ātiya nūryai pudbhī lā nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were sleeping.
 =====Habitual actions=====
@@ Line 527: / Line 565: @@
 Some verbs are also semantically habitual and therefore don't need to be marked as such. Multidirectional motion verbs (in the present) are a common example (they do have frequentative verb forms, but with an iterative meaning); others include ''tṛlake'' "to know", ''lilke'' "to live", ''nīkeikake'' "to be dating", ''mulke'' (√mun-) "to be able to".<br/>
-Note that the verb ''nairīveke'' "to learn" (and derivatives) is frequentative in form but not semantically (the underlying root *irī- is not attested elsewhere); it can't, however, form a frequentative verb so another way must be used for it to be marked as habitual.
+Note that the verb ''nairīveke'' "to learn" (and derivatives) is frequentative in form but not semantically (the underlying root *irī- is not attested elsewhere); it can't, however, form a frequentative verb so another way must be used for it to be marked as habitual. The same applies to frequentative forms of other verbs that are used with a different meaning, e.g. ''nūlgutveke'' "to shop", morphologically the frequentative of ''lgutake'' "to buy".
 ====Positional verbs for ongoing actions====
@@ Line 562: / Line 600: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = chlærim mindų nanū nuppire.
+| phrase = chlærim mindų širē nuppire.
 | gloss = light.<small>DIR.SG</small>. sound-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. be_fast.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = Light is faster than sound.
@@ Line 586: / Line 624: @@
 When presenting a new stance that can change the general consensus, even if based on observation, it is customary to use the first inferential:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lališire pūnāmis nanū našajelduɂire.
+| phrase = lališire pūnāmis širē našajelduɂire.
 | gloss = be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. product.<small>DIR.SG</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-INF1-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = The new product is, apparently, more effective.
@@ Line 620: / Line 658: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lili dadrainabukǣ.
+| phrase = lili dadrainabaṃkǣ.
 | gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. do.<small>IND.PERF-REP2-1S.EXTERIOR-BENEF</small>.
 | translation = They say this has been done to help me, but I don't trust them.
+}}
+Note that the reportative evidentials cannot be used in the future morphological tense (but can be used in the future intentional), and the assumptive cannot be used in either future tense.
+====Evidentials in complex sentences====
+In certain complex sentences in the ''past'' tense, where the first part has a non-firsthand evidential and the latter, on the other hand, has one, and the action in the latter sentence is consequential to the former, the knowledge in the first part is understood as being circumstantial to the past situation expressed in the second clause, and pragmatically it may be a description of how the speaker got their first hand knowledge of the situation, as the following example shows:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = ndorlemīre dalaiginap totemikrā āñjulyom mbyaṇḍhram.
+| gloss = be_sick-<small>REP1-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.3SG-COMMON.</small> Dalaigin-<small>INSTR</small>. lie-<small>REP1-IND.PAST.3SG.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. thither.<small>DIST</small>. go_on_foot.<small>MULTID-EXP-IND.PAST.1DU.PATIENT-EXTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = We went to the place where Dalaigin was lying ill.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/g8hlms/1249th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''1249th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Apr 26, 2020, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
+}}
+In this example, the situation described in the first sentence (Dalaigin was lying ill), was only known by the speaker because someone had told them, therefore the usage of the reportative evidential. This is not true for the time of the utterance, but it was true (and relevant) for the time the action described in the second sentence (the two of us went there) took place: in fact, it is understood that the speaker likely gained first hand knowledge of the fact expressed in the first sentence exactly because the second sentence happened. The following example would be understood as if the speaker already knew that Dalaigin was lying ill, i.e. they had already visited him:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = ndorlire dalaiginap totekrā āñjulyom mbyaṇḍhram.
+| gloss = be_sick-<small>EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.3SG-COMMON.</small> Dalaigin-<small>INSTR</small>. lie-<small>EXP-IND.PAST.3SG.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. thither.<small>DIST</small>. go_on_foot.<small>MULTID-EXP-IND.PAST.1DU.PATIENT-EXTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = We went to the place where Dalaigin was lying ill.
 }}
@@ Line 635: / Line 689: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lūminaise āñjulā jamom!
+| phrase = lūminaise āñjulā jogam!
 | gloss = if_only. there. be-<small>OPT.PERF.1SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = If only I had been there!
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nanā dvārma saminyan gu natyāmorā ša.
+| phrase = nanā dvārma nūryāra gu natyogērā ša.
 | gloss = that.<small>DIR</small>. room.<small>DIR.SG</small>. child-<small>ESS.PL</small>. <small>NEG</small>=stay-<small>OPT.IMPF.3SG.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
 | translation = Kids shouldn't stay in that room.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = daudike nacamai : tamirtirismoes.
+| phrase = daudike nacugi : tamirtugirises.
-| gloss = want-<small>INF</small> be.<small>HON-OPT.IMPF.2SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. be_seated-<small>EXP-CAUS-OPT-PERF.2SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
+| gloss = want-<small>INF</small> be.<small>HON-OPT.IMPF.2SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. be_seated-<small>OPT-EXP-CAUS-PERF.2SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = Please sit down.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = menire tatetimismai.
+| phrase = menire tatetyogisi.
-| gloss = tomorrow. be_stand-<small>EXP-CAUS-OPT-IMPF.2SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| gloss = tomorrow. be_stand-<small>OPT-EXP-CAUS-IMPF.2SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = Decide/Take a decision tomorrow. ~ Tomorrow you should take a decision.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = menire tatetimismoes.
+| phrase = menire tatetyogises.
-| gloss = tomorrow. be_stand-<small>EXP-CAUS-OPT-PERF.2SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| gloss = tomorrow. be_stand-<small>OPT-EXP-CAUS-PERF.2SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = Have a decision taken tomorrow. ~ Tomorrow you should have already taken a decision.
 }}
@@ Line 664: / Line 718: @@
 {{Gloss
 | phrase = læmibāgam ħildenu ālīce jālejildētte pa ukulemīra.
-| gloss = team.<small>DIR.SG</small>. game-<small>ACC.SG</small>. that_way. win-<small>SUBJ.PERF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. about. say-<small>IND.PERF-REP-3.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
+| gloss = team.<small>DIR.SG</small>. game-<small>ACC.SG</small>. that_way. win-<small>SUBJ.PERF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. about. say-<small>REP-IND.PERF.3.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = [They say] (s)he has/they have talked about how the team won the match.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = galtargyu pądīte ras nanū halše kāvelīsa.
+| phrase = galtargyu pądīte ras širē halše kāvelīsa.
 | gloss = train-<small>ACC.SG</small>. miss-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. avoid. more. early. go.out-<small>IND.PERF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = (S)he/they left earlier to avoid missing their train.
@@ Line 677: / Line 731: @@
 | translation = Maybe (s)he/they don't know [about] it.
 }}
-When used on its own, it has a supine meaning (i.e. "in order to"):
+When used on its own, it has a supine meaning (i.e. "in order to"). A supine subjunctive may also be linked to the antecedent it refers to through topic marking.
 {{Gloss
 | phrase = māraih lgutētte luvāmom dāmek.
 | gloss = mango-<small>ACC.PL</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. market-<small>DAT.SG</small>. walk.<small>MONODIR.IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = (S)he went/was going to the market to buy mangoes.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = gretas mæn pramāhire lācānų emibe rūsire lalyā. lilyā devoe haleyisī mædhram paṣlįlšī no.
+| gloss = offer.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. be_intense-<small>EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.3SG.COMMON</small>. love_making-<small>ABL.SG</small>. one.<small>DIR</small>. be_powerful-<small>EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.3SG.COMMON</small>. night.<small>DIR.SG</small> / <small>1SG.GEN.DIR</small>. soul.<small>DIR.SG</small>. calm-<small>CAUS-SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. body.<small>DIR.SG</small>. fully-shake-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. and.
+| translation = Proposal. One wild night of torrid lovemaking that soothes my soul and inflames my loins.
 }}
 Some verbs naturally require a subjunctive mood argument (typically in the imperfective aspect), like for example ''nīdhyuɂake'' (to call for) or ''ęrike'' (to let):
@@ Line 706: / Line 765: @@
 }}
 The subjunctive mood is also vital in forming conditional sentence; [[#Conditional sentences|see that section for more explanations.]]
+Copulative verbs such as ''birdake'' (to seem, be like) are usually used with the subjunctive:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = kālī galategurdī berdē.
+| gloss = Kālī.<small>DIR</small>. weep_sorrows_away-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. seem-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
+| translation = Kālī<ref>Diminutive of ''Kālomīyeh''.</ref>/she sounds weepy.
+}}
 ===The infinitive===
 The infinitive (''emibąukire daradhūs'') is a non-finite mood which may also be used as a noun in the -eh declension. Often, the infinitive was more common in Classical Chlouvānem than in the modern standard, which replaced it in many instances with the subjunctive. Most times where a verb needs a subjunctive argument in the modern standard, Classical Chlouvānem allowed both possibilities; using the infinitive there today is a deliberate archaization of speech.
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = tṛlakedaudyute.
+| phrase = tṛlake daudyute.
-| gloss = know-<small>INF</small>=want.<small>IND.PRES-1S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| gloss = know-<small>INF</small>. want.<small>IND.PRES-1S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = I want to know/understand.
 }}
-(cf. usual way of expressing this, desiderative ''tatarlyiru'', and also the subjunctive phrase ''tṛlirati daudyute'' which is also heard, especially in the Northeast.) This applies to verbs such as ''daudike'' "to want" (more often desiderative ''junya'' or subj.), but also ''širgake'' "to be possible that", ''novake'' "to be able to" (both more often potential or subj.), ''rileike'' "to need" (more often subj., rarely necessitative<ref>The necessitative ''junya'' conveys a stronger obligation than ''rileike'', cf. English "must" vs. "have to".</ref>).
+(cf. usual way of expressing this, desiderative ''tatarlyiru'', and also the subjunctive phrase ''tṛlirati daudyute'' which is also heard, especially in the Northeast.) This applies to verbs such as ''daudike'' "to want" (more often desiderative ''junya'' or subj.), but also ''širgake'' "to be possible that", ''novake'' "to be able to" (both more often potential or subj.), ''rileike'' "to need" (more often subj., rarely necessitative<ref>The necessitative ''junya'' conveys a stronger obligation than ''rileike'', cf. English "must" vs. "have to".</ref>).<br/>The infinitive is similarly archaic even with impersonal verbs, which nowadays are nearly always used with a subjunctive:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = nęlte naviṣya pądge lum prābē.
+| gloss = four.<small>DIR</small>. book.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be_missing-<small>INF</small>. <small>1SG.DAT</small>. disgust.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = I'm disgusted by the fact four books are missing.
+}}
+(cf. the common form ''nęlte naviṣya pądī lum prābē'', using the subjunctive).
 As explained above in the section about the subjunctive, verbs such as ''lelke'', ''vāgdulke'' (both "to choose"), and ''mulke'' (√mun-, to know how to) often take a subjunctive argument, but if their argument is a simple verb + trigger structure (and very often the trigger is a pronoun or determiner, including adverbial ones), then the infinitive is used.
@@ Line 768: / Line 840: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nunū nęlte yaltan snijē.
+| phrase = nunū nęlte ilāti snijē.
-| gloss = that.<small>MED.DIR</small>. four.<small>DIR</small>. yaltan.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be_worth-<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
+| gloss = that.<small>MED.DIR</small>. four.<small>DIR</small>. ilāti.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be_worth-<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
-| translation = It costs four yaltan.
+| translation = It costs four ilāti.
 }}
 There are particles which require a noun in the direct case: ''ga'' (adpositive), ''nali'' (benefactive marker), ''pa'' (concerning, about), and ''ras'' (antibenefactive marker).
@@ Line 776: / Line 848: @@
 The vocative case (''halausire dirūnnevya''), which is very often identical in form to the direct, is used for direct address:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lairei ūñjulā tatemišamai!
+| phrase = lairei ūñjulā tatemišugi!
 | gloss = Lairē-<small>VOC</small>. there. look-<small>OPT.IMPF.2SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = Lairē, look there [near you]!
@@ Line 821: / Line 893: @@
 A common use of the genitive is to express possession, i.e. what would be translated by the English verb "to have" (there is a Chlouvānem verb, ''cārake'', which is translated as "to have, possess", but it is mostly used in legal or literary contexts, or set phrases). This is especially often done when the possessor is not an explicit topic (as in the second example).
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = kvyāti giṣṭarire lalāruṇa.
+| phrase = vyāti giṣṭarire lalāruṇa.
 | gloss = hero-<small>GEN.SG</small>. be_young-<small>IND.PRES.3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. lalāruṇa.<small>DIR.SG</small>.
 | translation = The hero has a young lalāruṇa.
@@ Line 843: / Line 915: @@
 A few intransitive verbs require an argument expressed in the genitive, most commonly ''ḍhūke'' (to remember):
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nanyā ḍhvęru.
+| phrase = namī ḍhvęru.
 | gloss = <small>2SG.HIGHER.GEN</small>. remember-<small>IND.PRES.1SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = I remember you.
+}}
+The genitive case also marks the original patients of causative verbs. In that case, the genitive argument follows the patient of the causative verb (the causee):
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = tadhultu mbesyaute.
+| gloss = letter-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read_out_loud-<small>EXP-IND.PAST.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I read the letter out loud.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = hamilǣṣṇa lū tadhulti mbesīsekte.
+| gloss = Hamilǣṣṇa.<small>DIR</small>. <small>1SG.ACC</small>. letter-<small>GEN.SG</small>. read_out_loud-<small>EXP-CAUS-IND.PAST.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = Hamilǣṣṇa made me read the letter out loud.
 }}
 ===Stative cases===
-The three stative cases of Chlouvānem are the translative (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya''), exessive (''nenijamarcūkire ~''), and essive (''jalausire ~'') ones, prototypically referring to entrance, exit, and permanence in a given state.
+The three stative cases of Chlouvānem are the translative (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya''), exessive (''nanijamarcūkire ~''), and essive (''jalausire ~'') ones, prototypically referring to entrance, exit, and permanence in a given state.
 Often, these meanings correlate to nominal tense, with the exessive expressing a past state, the essive a present one, and the translative another in the future:
@@ Line 863: / Line 946: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lilyā kaleya mæn nanū aveṣyotārire lallāmahan camimurkadhānan gī gu lilullenāvaute ša.
+| phrase = lilyā kaleya mæn širē aveṣyotārire lallāmahan camimurkadhānan gī gu lilullenāvaute ša.
 | gloss = my-<small>DIR</small>. spiritual_friend.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. more. be_excellent-<small>IND.PRES.3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. highness-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. great_inquisitor-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>NEG</small>=believe.<small>POT-IND.PAST.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
 | translation = I could not believe that my best friend was the Great Inquisitor-elect.
@@ Line 891: / Line 974: @@
 The essive is typically used for the patient of most intransitive and interior verbs outside of patient-trigger voice:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = meinā saminyan hulābdān nīkǣdarāhai.
+| phrase = meinā nūryāra hulābdān nīkǣdarāhai.
 | gloss = mother.<small>DIR.SG</small>. child-<small>ESS.PL</small>. well. behave-<small>IND.PRES.3PL.EXTERIOR-BENEF</small>.
 | translation = For/In order to please [their] mother, the children behave well.
@@ Line 907: / Line 990: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nadaidanan lairęs lā peithegde.
+| phrase = nadaidanan lairęs lā mbeṇḍhē.
-| gloss = get_to_know_person-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. Lairē-<small>ESS</small>. with. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| gloss = get_to_know_person-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. Lairē-<small>ESS</small>. with. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.AGENT</small>.
 | translation = (S)he is going out with Lairē in order to get to know her.
 }}
 Essive and exessive are also used to state what something is made of, or what something was produced from respectively:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = māręs jolan lais hælvaiya
+| phrase = māręs jolaną lais hælvaiya
 | gloss = mango-<small>ESS.SG</small>. melon-<small>ESS.SG</small>. and_<small>INCOMPL</small>. fruit_salad.<small>DIR.SG</small>.
 | translation = a fruit salad predominantly made of mangoes and melons
@@ Line 942: / Line 1,025: @@
 It is also used in order to state something given in exchange for something else, most commonly when talking about money:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = emibumaye yaltat nenyau nīmilku ulgutaṃte.
+| phrase = emibumaye ilātit nenyau nīmilku ulgutaṃte.
-| gloss = 11<sub>12</sub>. yaltan-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. <small>PROXIMAL.SG-ACC</small>. music_album-<small>ACC.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.PERF-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| gloss = 11<sub>12</sub>. ilāti-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. <small>PROXIMAL.SG-ACC</small>. music_album-<small>ACC.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.PERF-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
-| translation = I bought this album for thirteen yaltan.
+| translation = I bought this album for thirteen ilāti.
 }}
@@ Line 961: / Line 1,044: @@
 | gloss = shelf-<small>ABL.SG</small>. book-<small>ACC.DU</small>. take-<small>IND.FUTINT.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = I'm going to take two books from the shelf.
+}}
+Being semantically opposite, dative and ablative may distinguish different meanings of a same verb:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = geṃtrenīs tattelå.
+| gloss = offence-<small>ABL.PL</small>. resist-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I resist the offences / I endure the offences.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = geṃtrasām tattelå.
+| gloss = offence-<small>DAT.PL</small>. resist-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I resist the offences / I counteract, react to the offences.
 }}
@@ Line 974: / Line 1,069: @@
 | translation = Plums are harvested for wine.
 }}
+Note that the roles are not always the same as in English. The English verb "to teach", for example, has a direct object and a receiver. In Chlouvānem, the corresponding verb ''baucake'' strictly means "to teach someone", and is not ditransitive: the things taught are specified with the particle ''pa'', so that the structure may be translated "to teach someone about something", and therefore it does ''not'' use the dative case.
 The ablative case is also used in comparative structures, marking the thing being compared:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų nanū lalla.
+| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų širē lalla.
 | gloss = Dāneh.<small>DIR</small>. Dulmaidana-<small>ABL</small>. more. tall.
 | translation = Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana.
@@ Line 987: / Line 1,084: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nenē naviṣya yaivų nanū ñæñuchlire.
+| phrase = nenē naviṣya yaivų širē ñæñuchlire.
 | gloss = this.<small>DIR</small>. book.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_beautiful-<small>IND.PRES.3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = This book is the most beautiful.
@@ Line 1,000: / Line 1,097: @@
 In Archaic Chlouvānem, the instrumental plural was used in order to form adverbs (e.g. ''maišpūnīka'' "chain~, as if in a chain"; ''keɂēnīka'' "clearly" (← ''keɂās'' "glass")); this usage predates Archaic Chlouvānem, as in fact the same inflection was maintained in many other Lahob languages which lost the instrumental case as a derivational, adverb-forming suffix. More rarely, the locative was used instead, a usage which survives in now lexicalized adverbs such as ''[[Contionary:halše|halše]]'' "soon" and in the grammaticalized adverbial formant ''-naise'' (originally the locative of ''naisah'', Arch. Chl. for "shape", i.e. "in the shape of").
+The instrumental (''drausire dirūnnevya'') is used to express the thing with which something is done, i.e. the instrument of an action:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = bausenīka seṣa ukhūgate.
+| gloss = stone-<small>INSTR.PL</small>. <small>2DU_INFORMAL.ACC</small>. hit_from_afar-<small>IND.PERF.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = (S)he hit you [two] with stones.
+}}
 ===Temporal and spatial case usage===
@@ Line 1,008: / Line 1,112: @@
 Chlouvānem may use the essive case in order to form an [[w:absolute construction|absolute construction]] which we'll call the "essive absolute" in this section. Much like the Latin ablative absolute, the Chlouvānem essive absolute describes a circumstance which the action takes place in:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = ṣūbha nūlastāną gvamyų lgutatite lenaute.
+| phrase = ṣūbha nūlastāmą gvamyu lgutatite lenaute.
 | gloss = little. money-<small>ESS.SG</small>. nothing-<small>ACC</small>. buy-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. choose-<small>IND.PAST.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = Having little money, I decided not to buy anything.
@@ Line 1,034: / Line 1,138: @@
 * A different solution is to mark indefiniteness: this is commonly done by using either ''emibe'' "one" or, in colloquial speech, ''sorasmā'' "some kind of".
-Chlouvānem as spoken in the area around the mid-course of the Nīmbaṇḍhāra river (the central Plain: roughly the whole of the diocese of Raharjātia, most of Jolenītra, Daikatorāma, Vādhātorama, and Namapleta, and parts of Mūrajātana, Perelkaša, Ryogiñjātia and far northern Sendakārva) does have a definite article used with non-topicalized arguments, which is actually the repurposed archaic demonstrative ''ami'' (still used as "this" in Archaic Chlouvānem). It declines for case, but not number, mostly following the pronoun declension (that is, exactly as ''tami'' without the initial ''t-'' except for the accusative (''amu'') and ergative (''amye'')).
+Chlouvānem as spoken in the area around the mid-course of the Nīmbaṇḍhāra river (the central Plain: roughly the whole of the diocese of Raharjaiṭa, most of Jolenītra, Daikatāraṣa, Vādhātāraṣa, and Namagrāṣya, and parts of Mūrajātana, Pāriṇavārṭha, Ryogiñjaiṭa and far northern Sundakārva) does have a definite article used with non-topicalized arguments, which is actually the repurposed archaic demonstrative ''ami'' (still used as "this" in Archaic Chlouvānem). It declines for case, but not number, mostly following the pronoun declension (that is, exactly as ''tami'' without the initial ''t-'' except for the accusative (''amu'') and ergative (''amye'')).
 ===Anaphora===
@@ Line 1,067: / Line 1,171: @@
 ==Comparative sentences==
-As stated above in the section about the use of the ablative case, comparative sentences (''tadmiškiloe'', pl. ''tadmiškilenī'') in Chlouvānem are formed by using the adverbial particles '''nanū''' (more) or '''ovat''' in front of the object of comparison, and using the ablative case for the comparison class.
+As stated above in the section about the use of the ablative case, comparative sentences (''tadmiškiloe'', pl. ''tadmiškilenī'') in Chlouvānem are formed by using the adverbial particles '''širē''' (more) or '''ovat''' in front of the object of comparison, and using the ablative case for the comparison class.
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nenē ūnima eṣanūvu nanū mųrmire.
+| phrase = nenē ūnima eṣanūvu širē mųrmire.
 | gloss = this.<small>SG.DIR</small>. road.<small>DIR.SG</small>. that.<small>DISTAL.DU-ABL</small>. more. be_long.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = This road is longer than those two.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lilyā kalineh ląu nanū lalla.
+| phrase = lilyā kalineh ląu širē lalla.
 | gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-DIR</small>. female's_younger_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>1SG.ABL</small>. more. tall.
 | translation = My younger sister is taller than me.
@@ Line 1,090: / Line 1,194: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nanā nurmai nanū našajeldire.
+| phrase = nanā nurmai širē našajeldire.
 | gloss = that.<small>DISTAL.SG.DIR</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = That soap is more effective.
+}}
+Comparative clauses are handled by using the appropriate correlative as a comparison term:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = nilyirau utnūḍų širē lalla vei.
+| gloss = think.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG-COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. that_much.<small>MEDIAL-ABL</small>. more. tall. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.2SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = You are taller than I thought. ~ You are tall, more than that extent I thought you to be.
 }}
 The structure used for superlatives is the same, but the comparison class (ablative case argument) is ''yaivų'' (than all). If there is a subset class (often as a marked topic), then ''yaivų'' is optional:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nunū pūnas yaivų nanū cami.
+| phrase = nunū pūnas yaivų širē cami.
 | gloss = that.<small>MEDIAL.SG.DIR</small>. work.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. important.
 | translation = That task [you have] is the most important.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = nanā nurmai yaivų nanū našajeldire.
+| phrase = nanā nurmai yaivų širē našajeldire.
 | gloss = that.<small>DISTAL.SG.DIR</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
 | translation = That soap is the most effective.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = bāgami saṃhārāk mæn khālbayān (yaivų) nanū mruṣṭhiṭ pūnē.
+| phrase = bāgami saṃhārāk mæn khālbayān (yaivų) širē mruṣṭhiṭ pūnē.
 | gloss = class-<small>GEN.SG</small>. boy-<small>DIR.PL</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>.  Khālbayān.<small>DIR</small>. (all-<small>ABL</small>.) more. be_careful-<small>ADV</small>. work.<small>IND.PRES-3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = Among the boys in the class, Khālbayān [is the one who] works the most carefully.
 }}
-For those verbs and adverbs which have irregular comparatives (see [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Irregular_forms|Chlouvānem morphology § Comparatives and superlatives § Irregular forms]]), ''nanū'' and ''yaivų nanū'' are not used, but the syntax is the same:
+For those verbs and adverbs which have irregular comparatives (see [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Irregular_forms|Chlouvānem morphology § Comparatives and superlatives § Irregular forms]]), ''širē'' and ''yaivų širē'' are not used, but the syntax is the same:
 {{Gloss
 | phrase = nenē eṇāh nanąu svaprire.
@@ Line 1,124: / Line 1,234: @@
 The syntax used is the same when the verbs are used attributively:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = dirūn nali nanū gęṇṭire ṣryaḍhīnu rileimiṃte.
+| phrase = dirūn nali širē gęṇṭire ṣryaḍhīnu rileimiṃte.
 | gloss = role.<small>DIR.SG</small>. for. more. be_old.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. actor-<small>ACC.SG</small>. need.<small>IND.PRES-1P.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = For [that] role we need an older actor/actress.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = yaivų (nanū) našajeldire nurmai ulguta.
+| phrase = yaivų (širē) našajeldire nurmai ulguta.
 | gloss = all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.PERF-3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = The most effective soap has been bought.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = bāgami nanū dadṛnausirāhe tarlāmąlelyē chlærausirekkǣ.
+| phrase = bāgami širē dadṛnausirāhe tarlāmąlelyē chlærausirekkǣ.
 | gloss = class-<small>GEN.SG</small>. more. be_skilled.<small>IND.PRES-3P.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. student-<small>DIR.PL</small>. be_easy.<small>IND.PAST-3S.EXTERIOR-BENEFACTIVE</small>.
 | translation = It was easy for the most skilled students in the class.
@@ Line 1,158: / Line 1,268: @@
 Comparing sentences with two different verbs requires the structure [sentence 1] + ''nanąu'' (ablative of ''nanā'' "that", i.e. "than that") + optionally ''ni'' (but) + [sentence 2]:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = yæyite nanąu ni nanū nūppęe dholtute.
+| phrase = yæyite nanąu ni širē nūpsiṭ dholtute.
 | gloss = read.<small>IND.PRES-2S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. that.<small>DISTAL.SG-ABL</small>. but. more. be_fast-<small>ADV</small>. write.<small>IND.PRES-1S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = I write faster than you read.
@@ Line 1,164: / Line 1,274: @@
 ===Only===
-The Chlouvānem construction for "only" is, grammatically, a comparative, with the thing that is "only" in the ablative case, compared to a positive alternative correlative (or, in some cases, ''nanū'') in a negative sentence:
+The Chlouvānem construction for "only" is, grammatically, a comparative, with the thing that is "only" in the ablative case, compared to a positive alternative correlative (or, in some cases, ''širē'') in a negative sentence:
 {{Gloss
 | phrase = nęltayų viṣāmi gu vi ša, gu našabuṃṣanah!
@@ Line 1,176: / Line 1,286: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lillaukų nanū gu yaccechlašute ša.
+| phrase = lillaukų širē gu yaccechlašute ša.
 | gloss = moment-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. <small>NEG</small>=request.<small>HUMBLE-INF</small>-do.<small>HUMBLE-PRES.IND.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.=<small>NEG</small>.
 | translation = Just a moment, please.
@@ Line 1,197: / Line 1,307: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = mārenīs lēn nanū mbinē.
+| phrase = mārenīs lēn širē mbinē.
 | gloss = mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. more. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = I prefer mangoes.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = mārenīs julkhenīs lēn nanū mbinē.
+| phrase = mārenīs julkhenīs lēn širē mbinē.
 | gloss = mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. peach-<small>ABL.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. more. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = I prefer mangoes to peaches.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = julkhenīs lēn mbinē, mārenīs ni nanū.
+| phrase = julkhenīs lēn mbinē, mārenīs ni širē.
 | gloss = peach-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. but. more.
 | translation = I like peaches, but I prefer mangoes.
@@ Line 1,213: / Line 1,323: @@
 ==Relative clauses==
-Chlouvānem relative clauses are nonreduced and work exactly the same way as adjectival verbs do: both clauses are independent. Time, place, and similar things are expressed with a distal correlative (see the [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Correlatives|table of correlatives]]).<br/>
+Chlouvānem relative clauses are nonreduced and work exactly the same way as adjectival verbs do: both clauses are independent. Time, place, and similar things (like interrogative content clauses) are expressed with a distal correlative (see the [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Correlatives|table of correlatives]]).<br/>
 The structure is thus as follows:
 {{Gloss
@@ Line 1,258: / Line 1,368: @@
 | gloss = pole_position-<small>ACC.SG</small>. championship-<small>LOC.SG</small>. rival-<small>ERG.SG</small>. take-<small>IND.PERF.3.EXTERIOR-ANTIBEN</small>. driver.<small>DIR.SG</small>. tomorrow. risk-<small>NECESS-IND.FUT.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = The driver, being disadvantaged as (his/her) championship rival has taken pole position, will have to take some risks tomorrow.
+}}
+To avoid nestling a sentence inside another one, outside of aulic styles the sentences are simply juxtaposed; the first of the following examples is grammatically correct, but virtually every Chlouvānem speaker prefers a simpler structure like the second one:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = kaminæne lære širēmye ānotē lę amboya no naviṣyu yæyute.
+| gloss = now. yesterday. chair-<small>LOC.SG</small>. lie_on.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. find_accidentally.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. and. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>
+| translation = I am now reading the book that yesterday I accidentally found lying on a chair.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = širēmye ānotē naviṣyu lære amboyaṃte kaminæne naviṣyu yæyute.
+| gloss = chair-<small>LOC.SG</small>. lie_on.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. yesterday. find_accidentally.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. now. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>
+| translation = I am now reading the book that yesterday I accidentally found lying on a chair.
 }}
@@ Line 1,263: / Line 1,385: @@
 Structures corresponding to those formed with subordinating conjunctions in most European languages are also not reduced, and built by using the appropriate correlative in the sentence that corresponds to the main clause in those languages. For example, a temporal correlative "when [S1], [S2]" is realized as "[S1], then, [S2]" as in the sentence given below:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lilyā ñæltah līlekhaitom tesmudhiṣya ātiya lę lairkeikom khlavasiṣya.
+| phrase = lilyā ñæltah līlekhaitom tesmudhiṣya ātiya lei lairkeikom lāvasiṣya.
-| gloss = <small>1S.GEN</small>. sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. Līlekhaitē-<small>DAT</small>. depart_with_plane-<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. then. <small>1S.ERG</small>. airport-<small>DAT.SG</small>. go_with.<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
+| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN.DIR </small>. male's_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. Līlekhaitē-<small>DAT</small>. depart_with_plane-<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. then. <small>1S.ERG</small>. airport-<small>DAT.SG</small>. go_with.<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = When my sister takes the plane to Līlekhaitē, I will go with her to the airport.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = sę mbavemikrā vyāɂāñjulyom elīsāltam.
+| phrase = sei mbavemikrā vyāɂāñjulyom elīsāltam.
 | gloss = <small>2SG.INFORM.ERG</small>. find_accidentally.<small>IND.PAST-REP1-3SG.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. left-thither. walk.<small>MONODIR.IND.FUTINT-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = I'll walk there to the left, where [you told me/I was told] you accidentally found [it].
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = lilyā glūkam adradhvate ālīce dadrāltaṃte.
+| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN.DIR</small> female's_brother.<small>DIR.SG</small>. manage-<small>EXP-IND.PERF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. that_way. do.<small>FUTINT-EXP-IND.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I'm going to do it the way my brother managed to.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = sei tandāmek utnūḍa alavih milkute.
+| gloss = <small>2SG.INFORM.ERG</small> find_by_searching.<small>PAST-EXP-IND.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. that_much.<small>MED</small>. bottle-<small>ACC.PL</small> take-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I'm taking as many bottles as you found.
 }}
 A similar construction is also used for arguments which are marked by particles:
@@ Line 1,279: / Line 1,411: @@
 }}
-==Translation of sentential subjects==
+==Indirect interrogative clauses==
-Using little subordination, sentential subjects common to English are rendered in different ways in Chlouvānem.
+===''pūmbu''===
+The word ''pūmbu'' (whether) marks indirect interrogative clauses; unlike most particles (the other exception being ''pū'', which it is derived from), it is normally found at the beginning of the sentence.
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = pūmbu yanahuppē gu tarliru ša.
+| gloss = whether. make_fun_of-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>NEG=</small>know<small>-EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.1SG.COMMON=NEG</small>.
+| translation = I don't know, whether [others] are making fun of her/him.
+}}
+Often, the clause marked by ''pūmbu'' may have a volitive meaning:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = pūmbu yanahuppē kamitehūgupīk.
+| gloss = whether. make_fun_of-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. check_looking_around.<small>INTENS-EXP-IND.PAST.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = (S)he kept looking around, [to see] whether [others] were making fun of her/him.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = pūmbu yaiva amāla gupugite.
+| gloss = whether. everything.<small>DIR</small>. order.<small>PERF-EXP-IND.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. check-<small>-EXP-OPT-IMPF.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = Check whether everything is in order.
+}}
+==Sentential subjects and objects==
+Chlouvānem often uses juxtaposition even among its structures expressing sentential subjects and objects, not requiring any linking word.
 Sentences expressing judgement are often translatable with evidentials (and are therefore single-clause):
@@ Line 1,298: / Line 1,450: @@
 | translation = They say that my son is working, but I doubt it.
 }}
-Other sentences are simply juxtaposed, not subordinated. A dummy "that" in the appropriate case may be inserted if the required case is not direct, accusative, or ergative, but it's often omitted:
+Other sentences are simply juxtaposed, not subordinated, despite being integral components of the sentence. A dummy "that" in the appropriate case may be inserted if the required case is not direct, accusative, or ergative, but it's often omitted:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = kānyahǣṣa demyāṣati dṛkte [nanāt] pęrdirek dām?
+| phrase = kānyahǣṣa demyāṣati dṛkte [nanāt] yavita pęrdirek?
-| gloss = Kānyahǣṣa.<small>DIR</small>. one's_own_way. do.<small>PAST.IND-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. [that.<small>EXESS.SG</small>.] annoy.<small>PAST.IND-EXP-3SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. <small>INTERR</small>.
+| gloss = Kānyahǣṣa.<small>DIR</small>. one's_own_way. do.<small>PAST.IND-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. [that-<small>EXESS</small>.] who.<small>INTERR.DIR</small>. annoy.<small>PAST.IND-EXP-3SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = Whom did that Kānyahǣṣa did [it] her way annoy?
+}}
+This strategy is also used where English would use content clauses as complements of nouns:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = lilemāvya nenyau graṇūmu milkekte [nanau] gu lillute ša.
+| gloss = Lilemāvya.<small>DIR</small>. this-<small>ACC</small>. mistake-<small>ACC.SG</small>. take.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. [that-<small>ACC</small>.] <small>NEG</small>=believe.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = I don't believe [the fact that] Lilemāvya made this mistake.
+}}
+===Declarative content clauses===
+Declarative content clauses are built in two possible ways: one using juxtaposed clauses, mandatory when the tenses differ and otherwise more proper of common speech, and a more formal one with the infinitive:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = ṣastirvam svātārṣake ndulširu.
+| gloss = Ṣastirvam.<small>DIR</small>. be_right-<small>INF</small>. be_sure.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-1SG.COMMON</small>.
+| translation = I am sure Ṣastirvam is right.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = ṣastirvam svātārṣire ndulširu.
+| gloss = Ṣastirvam.<small>DIR</small>. be_right.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-3SG.COMMON</small>. be_sure.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-1SG.COMMON</small>.
+| translation = I am sure Ṣastirvam is right.
+}}
+Indirect speech is generally handled through the use of a quotative marker ([[#Quoted_speech|see the corresponding section]]), but such declarative content clauses are typically used with verbs of perception:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = laukhlyai bismṛcce mišaute.
+| gloss = small_aquatic_lizard-<small>DIR.PL</small>. run_away.<small>MONOD-INF</small>. see.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I saw the lizards run away.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = kalineh kitom naliven mendute.
+| gloss = female's_younger_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. house-<small>DAT.SG.</small>. walk_into.<small>MONOD.IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.AGENT-EXP</small>. hear.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>..
+| translation = I hear my sister walking into the house.
 }}
@@ Line 1,331: / Line 1,513: @@
 Predictive conditional sentences and non-past speculative conditional ones are built mostly in the same way, with the if-clause having an imperfective subjunctive verb and the main clause having a choice between indicative or subjunctive, with tense and aspect dependant on meaning. The indicative in the main clause denotes a very high probability the result will happen should the condition be fulfilled; speculative conditionals never use the indicative in the main clause, and may be distinguished by adding the adverb ''lūminaise'' after ''pū''.
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gī lališire hāris ulgutāṃta.
+| phrase = lili mæn pū širē nūlastām gī lališire hāris ulgutāṃta.
 | gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. more. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.FUTINT-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = If I had more money, I'd surely buy a new carpet.
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gī lališire hāris lgutēt.
+| phrase = lili mæn pū širē nūlastām gī lališire hāris lgutēt.
 | gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. more. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = If I had more money, I'd buy a new carpet.
@@ Line 1,346: / Line 1,528: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lili mæn pū lūminaise maibu nūlastān gī lališire cūlla lgutēt.
+| phrase = lili mæn pū lūminaise maibu nūlastām gī lališire cūlla lgutēt.
 | gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. if_only. enough. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
 | translation = If only I had enough money, I'd buy a new car.
@@ Line 1,363: / Line 1,545: @@
 If the if-clause is omitted, then a declarative particle '''e''' is usually put at the end of the sentence:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = lili mæn emibat yaltat lgutēt e!
+| phrase = lili mæn emibat ilātit lgutēt e!
-| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. one-<small>EXESS</small>. yaltan-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>DECLAR</small>.
+| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. one-<small>EXESS</small>. ilāti-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>DECLAR</small>.
-| translation = I'd buy it for one yaltan!
+| translation = I'd buy it for one ilāti!
+}}
+==Other complex sentences==
+Complex sentences in Chlouvānem are often either independent clauses or attributives to particles or grammaticalized nouns.
+===Concession clauses===
+The typical way of building a concession clause (''ṭvāketanęs kulkāram'') is by simply coordinating two clauses with '''ni''' (but):
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = yaivita tattekilē, nelyęru nanau ni ukulāltaṃte.
+| gloss = everyone.<small>DIR</small>. protest.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. think.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG-INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. that-<small>ACC</small>. but. say.<small>IND.FUTINT-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-PATIENT</small>.
+| translation = Everyone is protesting, but I will [still] say what I think. ~ Even if everyone is protesting, I will say what I think.
+}}
+In less colloquial styles, the additional clause may have a subjunctive verb followed by ''daudī'':
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = yaivita tattekulī daudī, nelyęru nanau ni ukulāltaṃte.
+| gloss = everyone.<small>DIR</small>. protest.<small>SUBJ.IMPF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. want.<small>SUBJ.IMPF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. think.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG-INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. that-<small>ACC</small>. but. say.<small>IND.FUTINT-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-PATIENT</small>.
+| translation = Despite everyone being protesting, I will say what I think.
+}}
+The particle '''ni''' is also used to implicitly form a concessive clause using the essive absolute:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = giṣṭarą juṃgale ni lǣt.
+| gloss = young_person-<small>ESS.SG</small>. diocesan_synod-<small>LOC.SG</small>. but. already.
+| translation = Even if (s)he is young, (s)he is already [a member of] the Diocesan Synod.
+}}
+Another way of building a concession clause is to use '''pū''' (if) with a subjunctive verb and a polarly opposite main clause in the indicative; this is mostly done when the topic of both clauses is the same.
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = pū daudatite gu dadarṇāyute ša.
+| gloss = if. want.<small>SUBJ.IMPF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>NEG=</small>do.<small>POT-IND.PRES-EXP-1SG-EXTERIOR-AGENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = Even if I want to, I can't do it.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = pū gu daudatite ša dardṛṣūyute.
+| gloss = if. <small>NEG=</small>want.<small>SUBJ.IMPF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT=NEG</small>. do.<small>NECESS-IND.PRES-EXP-1SG-EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = Even if I don't want to, I have to do it.
+}}
+Hypothetical concessives are built by using '''pū''' in the concessive, connecting the main clause with '''ni''' and optionally using an adverb such as '''jahān''' (anyway). Both clauses need to be in the subjunctive, and in this case after ''pū'' there must be a perfective subjunctive:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = pū galtargyom namirtirēt (jahān) ṭhivēt ni.
+| gloss = if. train-<small>DAT.SG</small>. sit_inside.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3-INTERIOR.COMMON</small> (anyway.) be_late/slow.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. but.
+| translation = Had (s)he taken the train, (s)he would have been late anyway.
+}}
+===Causal and consecutive clauses===
+Not unlike Latin, Chlouvānem distinguishes between objective (''gu tatikilenūkire'' 'non-reportative') and subjective (''tatikilenūkire'' 'reportative') causal clauses (''amyąuvą kulkārāk'', sg. ''kulkāram''). The unmarked ones are objective, and marked by particles such as '''nyąu''' or '''tī''' along with an indicative mood verb; subjective causals are built the same way, but mandatorily need a reportative evidential.
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = nanā mæn rileyiṣyaṃte nyąu maitemęlyu.
+| gloss = that.<small>DIR</small>. <small>TOP</small>. need.<small>IND.FUT-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. because. prepare.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = Because I'll be needing it, I'm preparing it. ~ I'm preparing it because I will need it in the future.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = nanā mæn lilemāvya rileyiṣyemyate nyąu maitemęlyē.
+| gloss = that.<small>DIR</small>. <small>TOP</small>. Lilemāvya.<small>DIR</small> need.<small>IND.FUT-REP1-3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. because. prepare.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = As, she says, she'll need it in the future, Lilemāvya is preparing it.
+}}
+Especially in more colloquial styles, it is possible to juxtapose clauses (optionally with a correlative of reason) to explain the cause. Technically, in this case, one could analyze either the first clause as a causal or the second one as consecutive.
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = menire kimbahēšyom galtargyom nememirtsoliram nupsiṭ kāvupudbhāliram no.
+| gloss = tomorrow. Kimbahēši-<small>DAT</small>. train-<small>DAT.SG</small>. sit_inside.<small>NECESS-IND.FUTINT-EXP-1SG-COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. be_early-<small>ADV</small>. wake_up.<small>IND.FUTINT-EXP-1SG-COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. and.
+| translation = Tomorrow I need to get on the train to Kimbahēši and [so] I'll wake up early.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = menire kimbahēšyom galtargyom nememirtsoliram emena nupsiṭ kāvupudbhāliram.
+| gloss = tomorrow. Kimbahēši-<small>DAT</small>. train-<small>DAT.SG</small>. sit_inside.<small>NECESS-IND.FUTINT-EXP-1SG-COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. herefore. be_early-<small>ADV</small>. wake_up.<small>IND.FUTINT-EXP-1SG-COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = Tomorrow I need to get on the train to Kimbahēši, for this reason I'll wake up early.
+}}
+The causal may also be rendered by using an essive absolute:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = rahēlkite ħaiɂlañšįs ṣastirvam givūrų nupsiṭ bisavasālta.
+| gloss = hospital-<small>LOC.SG</small>. wife.<small>HON-ESS.SG</small>. Ṣastirvam.<small>DIR</small>. factory-<small>ABL.SG</small>. be_early-<small>ADV</small>. go_away_by_vehicle.<small>MONODIR.IND.FUTINT-EXP-3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = His wife being in hospital, Ṣastirvam will leave [work at] the factory early.
+}}
+Consecutive clauses of the form "X is so Y that Z" are rendered through a parallel construction with Z as an infinitive attributed to a repeated Y:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = taili naviṣyu eyiyaṃte, mešīnu raglake eyiyaṃte.
+| gloss = many. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. eye-<small>ACC.SG</small>. make_tired-<small>INF</small>. read.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I read so many books my eyes got tired.
+}}
+In cases such as the previous example, where there's a temporal element involved, the sentence could be rephrased by using '''sām''' (until):
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = lilyā mešīn raglēt sām taili naviṣyu eyiyaṃte.
+| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN.DIR</small>. eye.<small>DIR.SG</small>. make_tired.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. until. read.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. many. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I read many books, until my eyes got tired.
 }}
 ==Negatives==
 Chlouvānem negates sentences by using the circumfix ''gu(n) ... ša'' on the verb:
-: ''nanāt lēn mbinē'' "I like it" → ''nanāt lēn gu mbinē ša'' "I do not like it".
+{{Gloss
-: ''martayinām dvārmu nadāmek'' "Martayinām walked into the room" → ''martayinām dvārmu gu nadāmek ša'' "Martayinām didn't walk into the room".
+| phrase = nanāt lēn gu mbinē ša.
-: ''ejulā ū'' "I am here" → ''ejulā gun ū ša'' "I am not here".
+| gloss = that.<small>DIST-EXESS</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. <small>NEG</small>=be_liked-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = I don't like it.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = martayinām dvārmu gu nadāmek ša.
+| gloss = Martayinām.<small>DIR</small>. room-<small>ACC.SG</small>. <small>NEG</small>=walk_into.<small>PAST.MONODIR-EXP-IND.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = Martayinām didn't walk into the room.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = ejulā gun ū ša
+| gloss = here. <small>NEG</small>=be.<small>EXP.IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = I'm not here.
+}}
 The ''ša'' part of the circumfix is omitted if the verb is attributive:
-: ''ṣveya gun ujunya ša'' "the wall hasn't been painted" → ''gun ujunya ṣveya'' "the wall that hasn't been painted"
+{{Gloss
-: ''alūs gu kāmilire ša'' "the bottle isn't blue" → ''gu kāmilire alūs'' "the bottle that isn't blue"
+| phrase = ṣveya gun ujunya ša.
+| gloss = wall.<small>DIR.SG</small> <small>NEG</small>=paint-<small>EXP-IND.PERF-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = The wall hasn't been painted.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = gun ujunya ṣveya
+| gloss =  <small>NEG</small>=paint-<small>EXP-IND.PERF-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. wall.<small>DIR.SG</small>
+| translation = the wall that hasn't been painted
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = gu kāmilire alūs
+| gloss =  <small>NEG</small>=be_blue-<small>EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.3SG.COMMON</small>. bottle.<small>DIR.SG</small>
+| translation = the bottle that isn't blue
+}}
 Double negatives are not proper in Chlouvānem — negating a sentence with a negative correlative makes it affirmative:
-: ''guvitu mešute'' "I see no one"
+{{Gloss
-: ''lævitu gu mešute ša'' "I don't see anyone"
+| phrase = guvitu mešute.
-: ''guvitu gu mešute ša'' "I don't see no one" → "I see someone"
+| gloss =  no_one-<small>ACC</small>. see-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I see no one.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = grāmvitu gu mešute ša.
+| gloss =  anyone-<small>ACC</small>. <small>NEG</small>=see-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = I don't see anyone.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = guvitu gu mešute ša.
+| gloss =  no_one-<small>ACC</small>. <small>NEG</small>=see-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT=NEG</small>.
+| translation = *I don't see no one → I see someone.
+}}
+Such a sentence using a double negation is grammatical, however, it is quite marked: a better translation could be "it is definitely not true that I see no one."
 Note that ''ša'' is pronounced as if it were written *ṣa, thus {{IPA|[ʂä]}}, if the verb ends with ''-k'', as in most 3SG past tense forms.
@@ Line 1,423: / Line 1,725: @@
 }}
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = cāṃkṝsiṭ, karthāgo bīdardṛsmau tati vvlirute.
+| phrase = cāṃkṝsiṭ, karthāgo bīdruga tati vvlirute.
 | gloss = be_final-<small>ADV</small>. Carthage.<small>DIR</small>. destroy.<small>OPT.PERF-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. think.<small>IND.PRES-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
 | translation = [[w:Carthago delenda est|Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam.]] <small>(literally: "last [but not least], I think: 'Carthage must be destroyed.'")</small>
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = chilamulka mæn asenabhan lut bhrūvau, ṛcñahaidyāvaih yæyaute tati kulekte, kaminæne ni byudikyurbajñāvaih yæyuɂegde.
+| gloss = Chilamulka.<small>DIR</small>. <small>TOP</small>. month-<small>ABL.DU</small>. ago. meet-<small>EXP-IND.PAST.1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>., work_of_Ṛcñahaidī-<small>ACC.PL</small>. read-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. say-<small>EXP-IND.PAST.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>., now. but. work_of_Büdikürbey-<small>ACC.PL</small>. read-<small>INF1-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
+| translation = I met Chilamulka two months ago and she said she was reading Ṛcñahaidī, while now, as far as I can tell, she's reading Büdikürbey.
 }}
 This is the norm even in more complex sentences:
 {{Gloss
-| phrase = hānihæmma mæn jæhimīnta utsmā taili lācāk menni, lānicunyų nanū gun ē ša mīmišvayatite nin lañšijijeltsute tati yaiva laltesām kulekte.
+| phrase = hānihæmma mæn jæhimīnta utsmā taili lācāk menni, lānicunyų širē gun ē ša mīmišvayatite nin lañšijijeltsute tati yaiva laltesām kulekte.
 | gloss = Hānihæmma.<small>DIR</small>. <small>TOP</small>. Jæhimīnta.<small>DIR</small>. that_much.<small>MEDIAL</small>. much. love.<small>IND.PRES-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. because. / lānicunih-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. <small>NEG</small>=be.<small>IND.PAST.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>=<small>NEG</small>. see-<small>FREQ-SUBJ.IMPF-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. after. marry-<small>DESID-IND.PRES-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. all. friend-<small>DAT.PL</small>. say.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
 | translation = Hānihæmma loved Jæhimīnta so much that she<sub><small>1</small></sub> told all her<sub><small>1</small></sub> friends that she<sub><small>1</small></sub> wanted to marry her<sub><small>2</small></sub> after having seen her<sub><small>2</small></sub> for only one lunar phase!<ref>Example taken from a translation challenge on the ''Constructed Languages'' Facebook group, posted on Sep 8, 2018, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
@@ Line 1,449: / Line 1,756: @@
 | gloss = Ajāɂilbādhi-<small>DAT</small>. go_with_vehicle.<small>MULTIDIR-IND.FUT-2SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>NEG</small>=know.<small>IND.PAST-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
 | translation = I did not know you would have been to Ajāɂilbādhi.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = nūrya mæn gṇyāvirek ātiya gatvān ndēviṣya tati lūṣya tṛlirek.
+| gloss = child.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. give_birth-<small>EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PAST.3SG.COMMON</small>. then. chief-<small>TRANSL.SG</small>. become-<small>FUT-IND.3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. Lūṣya.<small>DIR</small>. know.<small>IND.PAST-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
+| translation = Lūṣya knew, when it was born, that her child would become chief.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/heefa8/1282nd_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''1282nd Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Jun 23, 2020, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
 }}

Chlouvānem/Syntax: Difference between revisions

Chlouvānem/Syntax (view source)

Revision as of 16:03, 11 June 2021