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| gloss = yesterday. evening-<small>LOC.SG</small>. temple-<small>DAT.SG</small>. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.PAST.IND-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| gloss = yesterday. evening-<small>LOC.SG</small>. temple-<small>DAT.SG</small>. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. walk.<small>MULTIDIR.PAST.IND-EXP-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went to the temple on foot.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went to the temple on foot.
}}
====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''prīkitās'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order. Epiphrastic triggered arguments are mostly limited to the literary language, while other epiphrastic arguments are quite common in everyday speech:
{{Gloss
| phrase = lili ladragyale pūnu, lilyā glūkam no.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. inn-<small>LOC.SG</small>. work-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1SG.GEN.DIR</small>. female's_brother.<small>DIR.SG</small>. and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and my brother too.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = pāmvyu naviṣyu mešute, ānotē phēcamu no.
| gloss = three-<small>ACC</small>. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. see-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. lie_on-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. cat-<small>ACC.SG</small>. and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}
}}


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Topics are very commonly used to mark a broad context, acting as a sort of "heading" for a sequence of otherwise seemingly unrelated sentences:
Topics are very commonly used to mark a broad context, acting as a sort of "heading" for a sequence of otherwise seemingly unrelated sentences:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nāmñē mæn švai chlǣvānumi maichleyuñci, jaryāmaile lilah, soramiya mušigērisilīm tora, ñikumi viṣam haloe līlas vi no. nenēhu līlasuṃghāṇa ga camimarti haloe gṇyāvire.
| phrase = nāmñē mæn švai chlǣvānumi maichleyuñci, jaryāmaile lilah, soramiya mušigērisilīm tan, ñikumi viṣam haloe līlas vi no. nenēhu līlasuṃghāṇa ga camimarti haloe gṇyāvire.
| gloss = nāmñē.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. animal-<small>DIR.PL.</small> Chlouvānem-<small>GEN.PL</small>. south-<small>GEN.SG.</small>. – seawater-<small>LOC.SG</small>. live-<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3PL.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. – sometimes. tidal.lake-<small>LOC.PL</small>. also. – cub-<small>GEN.PL</small>. other.<small>DIR</small>. name.<small>DIR.SG.</small>. līlas.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. and. — this-<small>ABL</small>. Līlasuṃghāṇa.<small>DIR</small>. <small>ADP</small>. capital.city-<small>GEN.SG</small>. name.<small>DIR.SG</small>. give.birth-<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| gloss = nāmñē.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. animal-<small>DIR.PL.</small> Chlouvānem-<small>GEN.PL</small>. south-<small>GEN.SG.</small>. – seawater-<small>LOC.SG</small>. live-<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3PL.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. – sometimes. tidal.lake-<small>LOC.PL</small>. also. – cub-<small>GEN.PL</small>. other.<small>DIR</small>. name.<small>DIR.SG.</small>. līlas.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. and. — this-<small>ABL</small>. Līlasuṃghāṇa.<small>DIR</small>. <small>ADP</small>. capital.city-<small>GEN.SG</small>. name.<small>DIR.SG</small>. give.birth-<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| translation = Nāmñai<ref>A kind of tropical seal, iconic and sacred in Chlouvānem culture.</ref> are animals of the Southern Inquisition that live in seawater and sometimes can also be found in tidal lakes; another name for their cubs is "līlas". This is the source of the name of the Chlouvānem capital Līlasuṃghāṇa.
| translation = Nāmñai<ref>A kind of tropical seal, iconic and sacred in Chlouvānem culture.</ref> are animals of the Southern Inquisition that live in seawater and sometimes can also be found in tidal lakes; another name for their cubs is "līlas". This is the source of the name of the Chlouvānem capital Līlasuṃghāṇa.
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų nanū lalla.
| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų širē lalla.
| gloss = Dāneh.<small>DIR</small>. Dulmaidana-<small>ABL</small>. more. tall.
| gloss = Dāneh.<small>DIR</small>. Dulmaidana-<small>ABL</small>. more. tall.
| translation = Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana.
| translation = Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana.
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = jāyim palyu junikte : ni nenichladirya meinei muṣkemālchek.
| phrase = jāyim palyu junikte : ni nanichladirya meinei muṣkemālchek.
| gloss = girl.<small>DIR.SG</small>. face-<small>ACC.SG</small>. paint.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. – but. hurry.<small>SUBJ.IMPF-3SG.INTERIOR</small>. mother-<small>ERG.SG</small>. ask-<small>INF</small>-run.<small>MULTIDIR-IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = girl.<small>DIR.SG</small>. face-<small>ACC.SG</small>. paint.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. – but. hurry.<small>SUBJ.IMPF-3SG.INTERIOR</small>. mother-<small>ERG.SG</small>. ask-<small>INF</small>-run.<small>MULTIDIR-IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = The girl was painting her [own] face, but her mother kept asking her to hurry.
| translation = The girl was painting her [own] face, but her mother kept asking her to hurry.
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=====''lut''=====
=====''lut''=====
The particle ''lut'' (otherwise meaning "ago" or "for, since" with nouns) is typically used in the past to denote the perfect continuous, i.e. an ongoing action that had started previously. It follows a verb in the imperfective subjunctive, and is also used together with ''jalle'', like the previous particles.
The particle ''lut'' (otherwise meaning "ago" or "for, since" with nouns) is typically used in the past to denote the perfect continuous, i.e. an ongoing action that had started previously. It follows a verb in the imperfective subjunctive, and is also used together with ''jalle'', like the previous particles.
* ''maihadhūt primęlirlat ātiya samin pudbhī lut nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were already sleeping.
* ''maihadhūt primęlirlat ātiya nūryai pudbhī lut nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were already sleeping.
* ''cūllap vasīnam lut nyābhe sama sīsyupikę e lališenu tattedāmābhe.'' — We were already going by car when (lit. "and") we discovered the tragic news.
* ''cūllap vasīnam lut nyābhe sama sīsyupikę e lališenu tattedāmābhe.'' — We were already going by car when (lit. "and") we discovered the tragic news.
The main difference between this form and a general progressive action marked by ''lā'' is that ''lut'' places a stronger emphasis on the starting point of the action being in the past, rather than on the action being still ongoing in the [relative] present. In the English translations above, this has been hinted at by using "already"; compare the first example rendered with ''lā'':
The main difference between this form and a general progressive action marked by ''lā'' is that ''lut'' places a stronger emphasis on the starting point of the action being in the past, rather than on the action being still ongoing in the [relative] present. In the English translations above, this has been hinted at by using "already"; compare the first example rendered with ''lā'':
* ''maihadhūt primęlirdat ātiya samin pudbhī lā nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were sleeping.
* ''maihadhūt primęlirdat ātiya nūryai pudbhī lā nīkā.'' – When the parents got back, the children were sleeping.


=====Habitual actions=====
=====Habitual actions=====
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = chlærim mindų nanū nuppire.
| phrase = chlærim mindų širē nuppire.
| gloss = light.<small>DIR.SG</small>. sound-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. be_fast.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
| gloss = light.<small>DIR.SG</small>. sound-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. be_fast.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Light is faster than sound.
| translation = Light is faster than sound.
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When presenting a new stance that can change the general consensus, even if based on observation, it is customary to use the first inferential:
When presenting a new stance that can change the general consensus, even if based on observation, it is customary to use the first inferential:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lališire pūnāmis nanū našajelduɂire.
| phrase = lališire pūnāmis širē našajelduɂire.
| gloss = be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. product.<small>DIR.SG</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-INF1-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
| gloss = be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. product.<small>DIR.SG</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-INF1-3S.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
| translation = The new product is, apparently, more effective.
| translation = The new product is, apparently, more effective.
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| translation = They say this has been done to help me, but I don't trust them.
| translation = They say this has been done to help me, but I don't trust them.
}}
}}
Note that the reportative evidentials cannot be used in the future morphological tense (but can be used in the future intentional), and the assumptive cannot be used in either future tense.


====Evidentials in complex sentences====
====Evidentials in complex sentences====
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nanā dvārma saminyan gu natyogērā ša.
| phrase = nanā dvārma nūryāra gu natyogērā ša.
| gloss = that.<small>DIR</small>. room.<small>DIR.SG</small>. child-<small>ESS.PL</small>. <small>NEG</small>=stay-<small>OPT.IMPF.3SG.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
| gloss = that.<small>DIR</small>. room.<small>DIR.SG</small>. child-<small>ESS.PL</small>. <small>NEG</small>=stay-<small>OPT.IMPF.3SG.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
| translation = Kids shouldn't stay in that room.
| translation = Kids shouldn't stay in that room.
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = galtargyu pądīte ras nanū halše kāvelīsa.
| phrase = galtargyu pądīte ras širē halše kāvelīsa.
| gloss = train-<small>ACC.SG</small>. miss-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. avoid. more. early. go.out-<small>IND.PERF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = train-<small>ACC.SG</small>. miss-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. avoid. more. early. go.out-<small>IND.PERF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = (S)he/they left earlier to avoid missing their train.
| translation = (S)he/they left earlier to avoid missing their train.
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}}
}}
The subjunctive mood is also vital in forming conditional sentence; [[#Conditional sentences|see that section for more explanations.]]
The subjunctive mood is also vital in forming conditional sentence; [[#Conditional sentences|see that section for more explanations.]]
Copulative verbs such as ''birdake'' (to seem, be like) are usually used with the subjunctive:
{{Gloss
| phrase = kālī galategurdī berdē.
| gloss = Kālī.<small>DIR</small>. weep_sorrows_away-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. seem-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = Kālī<ref>Diminutive of ''Kālomīyeh''.</ref>/she sounds weepy.
}}


===The infinitive===
===The infinitive===
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nunū nęlte yaltan snijē.
| phrase = nunū nęlte ilāti snijē.
| gloss = that.<small>MED.DIR</small>. four.<small>DIR</small>. yaltan.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be_worth-<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = that.<small>MED.DIR</small>. four.<small>DIR</small>. ilāti.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be_worth-<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = It costs four yaltan.
| translation = It costs four ilāti.
}}
}}
There are particles which require a noun in the direct case: ''ga'' (adpositive), ''nali'' (benefactive marker), ''pa'' (concerning, about), and ''ras'' (antibenefactive marker).
There are particles which require a noun in the direct case: ''ga'' (adpositive), ''nali'' (benefactive marker), ''pa'' (concerning, about), and ''ras'' (antibenefactive marker).
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===Stative cases===
===Stative cases===
The three stative cases of Chlouvānem are the translative (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya''), exessive (''nenijamarcūkire ~''), and essive (''jalausire ~'') ones, prototypically referring to entrance, exit, and permanence in a given state.
The three stative cases of Chlouvānem are the translative (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya''), exessive (''nanijamarcūkire ~''), and essive (''jalausire ~'') ones, prototypically referring to entrance, exit, and permanence in a given state.


Often, these meanings correlate to nominal tense, with the exessive expressing a past state, the essive a present one, and the translative another in the future:
Often, these meanings correlate to nominal tense, with the exessive expressing a past state, the essive a present one, and the translative another in the future:
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilyā kaleya mæn nanū aveṣyotārire lallāmahan camimurkadhānan gī gu lilullenāvaute ša.
| phrase = lilyā kaleya mæn širē aveṣyotārire lallāmahan camimurkadhānan gī gu lilullenāvaute ša.
| gloss = my-<small>DIR</small>. spiritual_friend.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. more. be_excellent-<small>IND.PRES.3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. highness-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. great_inquisitor-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>NEG</small>=believe.<small>POT-IND.PAST.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
| gloss = my-<small>DIR</small>. spiritual_friend.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. more. be_excellent-<small>IND.PRES.3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. highness-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. great_inquisitor-<small>TRANS.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>NEG</small>=believe.<small>POT-IND.PAST.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
| translation = I could not believe that my best friend was the Great Inquisitor-elect.
| translation = I could not believe that my best friend was the Great Inquisitor-elect.
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The essive is typically used for the patient of most intransitive and interior verbs outside of patient-trigger voice:
The essive is typically used for the patient of most intransitive and interior verbs outside of patient-trigger voice:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = meinā saminyan hulābdān nīkǣdarāhai.
| phrase = meinā nūryāra hulābdān nīkǣdarāhai.
| gloss = mother.<small>DIR.SG</small>. child-<small>ESS.PL</small>. well. behave-<small>IND.PRES.3PL.EXTERIOR-BENEF</small>.
| gloss = mother.<small>DIR.SG</small>. child-<small>ESS.PL</small>. well. behave-<small>IND.PRES.3PL.EXTERIOR-BENEF</small>.
| translation = For/In order to please [their] mother, the children behave well.
| translation = For/In order to please [their] mother, the children behave well.
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It is also used in order to state something given in exchange for something else, most commonly when talking about money:
It is also used in order to state something given in exchange for something else, most commonly when talking about money:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = emibumaye yaltat nenyau nīmilku ulgutaṃte.
| phrase = emibumaye ilātit nenyau nīmilku ulgutaṃte.
| gloss = 11<sub>12</sub>. yaltan-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. <small>PROXIMAL.SG-ACC</small>. music_album-<small>ACC.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.PERF-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| gloss = 11<sub>12</sub>. ilāti-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. <small>PROXIMAL.SG-ACC</small>. music_album-<small>ACC.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.PERF-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I bought this album for thirteen yaltan.
| translation = I bought this album for thirteen ilāti.
}}
}}


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| gloss = shelf-<small>ABL.SG</small>. book-<small>ACC.DU</small>. take-<small>IND.FUTINT.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| gloss = shelf-<small>ABL.SG</small>. book-<small>ACC.DU</small>. take-<small>IND.FUTINT.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I'm going to take two books from the shelf.
| translation = I'm going to take two books from the shelf.
}}
Being semantically opposite, dative and ablative may distinguish different meanings of a same verb:
{{Gloss
| phrase = geṃtrenīs tattelå.
| gloss = offence-<small>ABL.PL</small>. resist-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I resist the offences / I endure the offences.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = geṃtrasām tattelå.
| gloss = offence-<small>DAT.PL</small>. resist-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I resist the offences / I counteract, react to the offences.
}}
}}


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| translation = Plums are harvested for wine.
| translation = Plums are harvested for wine.
}}
}}
Note that the roles are not always the same as in English. The English verb "to teach", for example, has a direct object and a receiver. In Chlouvānem, the corresponding verb ''baucake'' strictly means "to teach someone", and is not ditransitive: the things taught are specified with the particle ''pa'', so that the structure may be translated "to teach someone about something", and therefore it does ''not'' use the dative case.


The ablative case is also used in comparative structures, marking the thing being compared:
The ablative case is also used in comparative structures, marking the thing being compared:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų nanū lalla.
| phrase = dāneh dulmaidanų širē lalla.
| gloss = Dāneh.<small>DIR</small>. Dulmaidana-<small>ABL</small>. more. tall.
| gloss = Dāneh.<small>DIR</small>. Dulmaidana-<small>ABL</small>. more. tall.
| translation = Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana.
| translation = Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana.
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenē naviṣya yaivų nanū ñæñuchlire.
| phrase = nenē naviṣya yaivų širē ñæñuchlire.
| gloss = this.<small>DIR</small>. book.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_beautiful-<small>IND.PRES.3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| gloss = this.<small>DIR</small>. book.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_beautiful-<small>IND.PRES.3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| translation = This book is the most beautiful.
| translation = This book is the most beautiful.
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In Archaic Chlouvānem, the instrumental plural was used in order to form adverbs (e.g. ''maišpūnīka'' "chain~, as if in a chain"; ''keɂēnīka'' "clearly" (← ''keɂās'' "glass")); this usage predates Archaic Chlouvānem, as in fact the same inflection was maintained in many other Lahob languages which lost the instrumental case as a derivational, adverb-forming suffix. More rarely, the locative was used instead, a usage which survives in now lexicalized adverbs such as ''[[Contionary:halše|halše]]'' "soon" and in the grammaticalized adverbial formant ''-naise'' (originally the locative of ''naisah'', Arch. Chl. for "shape", i.e. "in the shape of").
In Archaic Chlouvānem, the instrumental plural was used in order to form adverbs (e.g. ''maišpūnīka'' "chain~, as if in a chain"; ''keɂēnīka'' "clearly" (← ''keɂās'' "glass")); this usage predates Archaic Chlouvānem, as in fact the same inflection was maintained in many other Lahob languages which lost the instrumental case as a derivational, adverb-forming suffix. More rarely, the locative was used instead, a usage which survives in now lexicalized adverbs such as ''[[Contionary:halše|halše]]'' "soon" and in the grammaticalized adverbial formant ''-naise'' (originally the locative of ''naisah'', Arch. Chl. for "shape", i.e. "in the shape of").
The instrumental (''drausire dirūnnevya'') is used to express the thing with which something is done, i.e. the instrument of an action:
{{Gloss
| phrase = bausenīka seṣa ukhūgate.
| gloss = stone-<small>INSTR.PL</small>. <small>2DU_INFORMAL.ACC</small>. hit_from_afar-<small>IND.PERF.3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = (S)he hit you [two] with stones.
}}


===Temporal and spatial case usage===
===Temporal and spatial case usage===
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Chlouvānem may use the essive case in order to form an [[w:absolute construction|absolute construction]] which we'll call the "essive absolute" in this section. Much like the Latin ablative absolute, the Chlouvānem essive absolute describes a circumstance which the action takes place in:
Chlouvānem may use the essive case in order to form an [[w:absolute construction|absolute construction]] which we'll call the "essive absolute" in this section. Much like the Latin ablative absolute, the Chlouvānem essive absolute describes a circumstance which the action takes place in:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣūbha nūlastāną gvamyu lgutatite lenaute.
| phrase = ṣūbha nūlastāmą gvamyu lgutatite lenaute.
| gloss = little. money-<small>ESS.SG</small>. nothing-<small>ACC</small>. buy-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. choose-<small>IND.PAST.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| gloss = little. money-<small>ESS.SG</small>. nothing-<small>ACC</small>. buy-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. choose-<small>IND.PAST.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = Having little money, I decided not to buy anything.
| translation = Having little money, I decided not to buy anything.
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* A different solution is to mark indefiniteness: this is commonly done by using either ''emibe'' "one" or, in colloquial speech, ''sorasmā'' "some kind of".
* A different solution is to mark indefiniteness: this is commonly done by using either ''emibe'' "one" or, in colloquial speech, ''sorasmā'' "some kind of".


Chlouvānem as spoken in the area around the mid-course of the Nīmbaṇḍhāra river (the central Plain: roughly the whole of the diocese of Raharjātia, most of Jolenītra, Daikatorāma, Vādhātorama, and Namapleta, and parts of Mūrajātana, Perelkaša, Ryogiñjātia and far northern Sendakārva) does have a definite article used with non-topicalized arguments, which is actually the repurposed archaic demonstrative ''ami'' (still used as "this" in Archaic Chlouvānem). It declines for case, but not number, mostly following the pronoun declension (that is, exactly as ''tami'' without the initial ''t-'' except for the accusative (''amu'') and ergative (''amye'')).
Chlouvānem as spoken in the area around the mid-course of the Nīmbaṇḍhāra river (the central Plain: roughly the whole of the diocese of Raharjaiṭa, most of Jolenītra, Daikatāraṣa, Vādhātāraṣa, and Namagrāṣya, and parts of Mūrajātana, Pāriṇavārṭha, Ryogiñjaiṭa and far northern Sundakārva) does have a definite article used with non-topicalized arguments, which is actually the repurposed archaic demonstrative ''ami'' (still used as "this" in Archaic Chlouvānem). It declines for case, but not number, mostly following the pronoun declension (that is, exactly as ''tami'' without the initial ''t-'' except for the accusative (''amu'') and ergative (''amye'')).


===Anaphora===
===Anaphora===
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==Comparative sentences==
==Comparative sentences==
As stated above in the section about the use of the ablative case, comparative sentences (''tadmiškiloe'', pl. ''tadmiškilenī'') in Chlouvānem are formed by using the adverbial particles '''nanū''' (more) or '''ovat''' in front of the object of comparison, and using the ablative case for the comparison class.
As stated above in the section about the use of the ablative case, comparative sentences (''tadmiškiloe'', pl. ''tadmiškilenī'') in Chlouvānem are formed by using the adverbial particles '''širē''' (more) or '''ovat''' in front of the object of comparison, and using the ablative case for the comparison class.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenē ūnima eṣanūvu nanū mųrmire.
| phrase = nenē ūnima eṣanūvu širē mųrmire.
| gloss = this.<small>SG.DIR</small>. road.<small>DIR.SG</small>. that.<small>DISTAL.DU-ABL</small>. more. be_long.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| gloss = this.<small>SG.DIR</small>. road.<small>DIR.SG</small>. that.<small>DISTAL.DU-ABL</small>. more. be_long.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| translation = This road is longer than those two.
| translation = This road is longer than those two.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilyā kalineh ląu nanū lalla.
| phrase = lilyā kalineh ląu širē lalla.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-DIR</small>. female's_younger_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>1SG.ABL</small>. more. tall.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-DIR</small>. female's_younger_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>1SG.ABL</small>. more. tall.
| translation = My younger sister is taller than me.
| translation = My younger sister is taller than me.
Line 1,151: Line 1,194:
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nanā nurmai nanū našajeldire.
| phrase = nanā nurmai širē našajeldire.
| gloss = that.<small>DISTAL.SG.DIR</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| gloss = that.<small>DISTAL.SG.DIR</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| translation = That soap is more effective.
| translation = That soap is more effective.
Line 1,157: Line 1,200:
Comparative clauses are handled by using the appropriate correlative as a comparison term:
Comparative clauses are handled by using the appropriate correlative as a comparison term:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nilyirau utnūḍų nanū lalla vei.
| phrase = nilyirau utnūḍų širē lalla vei.
| gloss = think.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG-COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. that_much.<small>MEDIAL-ABL</small>. more. tall. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.2SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| gloss = think.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG-COMMON.INTERIOR</small>. that_much.<small>MEDIAL-ABL</small>. more. tall. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.2SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = You are taller than I thought. ~ You are tall, more than that extent I thought you to be.
| translation = You are taller than I thought. ~ You are tall, more than that extent I thought you to be.
Line 1,163: Line 1,206:
The structure used for superlatives is the same, but the comparison class (ablative case argument) is ''yaivų'' (than all). If there is a subset class (often as a marked topic), then ''yaivų'' is optional:
The structure used for superlatives is the same, but the comparison class (ablative case argument) is ''yaivų'' (than all). If there is a subset class (often as a marked topic), then ''yaivų'' is optional:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nunū pūnas yaivų nanū cami.
| phrase = nunū pūnas yaivų širē cami.
| gloss = that.<small>MEDIAL.SG.DIR</small>. work.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. important.
| gloss = that.<small>MEDIAL.SG.DIR</small>. work.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. important.
| translation = That task [you have] is the most important.
| translation = That task [you have] is the most important.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nanā nurmai yaivų nanū našajeldire.
| phrase = nanā nurmai yaivų širē našajeldire.
| gloss = that.<small>DISTAL.SG.DIR</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| gloss = that.<small>DISTAL.SG.DIR</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>.
| translation = That soap is the most effective.
| translation = That soap is the most effective.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = bāgami saṃhārāk mæn khālbayān (yaivų) nanū mruṣṭhiṭ pūnē.
| phrase = bāgami saṃhārāk mæn khālbayān (yaivų) širē mruṣṭhiṭ pūnē.
| gloss = class-<small>GEN.SG</small>. boy-<small>DIR.PL</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>.  Khālbayān.<small>DIR</small>. (all-<small>ABL</small>.) more. be_careful-<small>ADV</small>. work.<small>IND.PRES-3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = class-<small>GEN.SG</small>. boy-<small>DIR.PL</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>.  Khālbayān.<small>DIR</small>. (all-<small>ABL</small>.) more. be_careful-<small>ADV</small>. work.<small>IND.PRES-3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = Among the boys in the class, Khālbayān [is the one who] works the most carefully.
| translation = Among the boys in the class, Khālbayān [is the one who] works the most carefully.
}}
}}
For those verbs and adverbs which have irregular comparatives (see [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Irregular_forms|Chlouvānem morphology § Comparatives and superlatives § Irregular forms]]), ''nanū'' and ''yaivų nanū'' are not used, but the syntax is the same:
For those verbs and adverbs which have irregular comparatives (see [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Irregular_forms|Chlouvānem morphology § Comparatives and superlatives § Irregular forms]]), ''širē'' and ''yaivų širē'' are not used, but the syntax is the same:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenē eṇāh nanąu svaprire.
| phrase = nenē eṇāh nanąu svaprire.
Line 1,191: Line 1,234:
The syntax used is the same when the verbs are used attributively:
The syntax used is the same when the verbs are used attributively:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = dirūn nali nanū gęṇṭire ṣryaḍhīnu rileimiṃte.
| phrase = dirūn nali širē gęṇṭire ṣryaḍhīnu rileimiṃte.
| gloss = role.<small>DIR.SG</small>. for. more. be_old.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. actor-<small>ACC.SG</small>. need.<small>IND.PRES-1P.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| gloss = role.<small>DIR.SG</small>. for. more. be_old.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. actor-<small>ACC.SG</small>. need.<small>IND.PRES-1P.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = For [that] role we need an older actor/actress.
| translation = For [that] role we need an older actor/actress.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivų (nanū) našajeldire nurmai ulguta.
| phrase = yaivų (širē) našajeldire nurmai ulguta.
| gloss = all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.PERF-3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = all-<small>ABL</small>. more. be_effective.<small>IND.PRES-3S.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. soap.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.PERF-3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = The most effective soap has been bought.
| translation = The most effective soap has been bought.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = bāgami nanū dadṛnausirāhe tarlāmąlelyē chlærausirekkǣ.
| phrase = bāgami širē dadṛnausirāhe tarlāmąlelyē chlærausirekkǣ.
| gloss = class-<small>GEN.SG</small>. more. be_skilled.<small>IND.PRES-3P.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. student-<small>DIR.PL</small>. be_easy.<small>IND.PAST-3S.EXTERIOR-BENEFACTIVE</small>.
| gloss = class-<small>GEN.SG</small>. more. be_skilled.<small>IND.PRES-3P.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. student-<small>DIR.PL</small>. be_easy.<small>IND.PAST-3S.EXTERIOR-BENEFACTIVE</small>.
| translation = It was easy for the most skilled students in the class.
| translation = It was easy for the most skilled students in the class.
Line 1,225: Line 1,268:
Comparing sentences with two different verbs requires the structure [sentence 1] + ''nanąu'' (ablative of ''nanā'' "that", i.e. "than that") + optionally ''ni'' (but) + [sentence 2]:
Comparing sentences with two different verbs requires the structure [sentence 1] + ''nanąu'' (ablative of ''nanā'' "that", i.e. "than that") + optionally ''ni'' (but) + [sentence 2]:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = yæyite nanąu ni nanū nūpsiṭ dholtute.
| phrase = yæyite nanąu ni širē nūpsiṭ dholtute.
| gloss = read.<small>IND.PRES-2S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. that.<small>DISTAL.SG-ABL</small>. but. more. be_fast-<small>ADV</small>. write.<small>IND.PRES-1S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| gloss = read.<small>IND.PRES-2S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. that.<small>DISTAL.SG-ABL</small>. but. more. be_fast-<small>ADV</small>. write.<small>IND.PRES-1S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I write faster than you read.
| translation = I write faster than you read.
Line 1,231: Line 1,274:


===Only===
===Only===
The Chlouvānem construction for "only" is, grammatically, a comparative, with the thing that is "only" in the ablative case, compared to a positive alternative correlative (or, in some cases, ''nanū'') in a negative sentence:
The Chlouvānem construction for "only" is, grammatically, a comparative, with the thing that is "only" in the ablative case, compared to a positive alternative correlative (or, in some cases, ''širē'') in a negative sentence:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = nęltayų viṣāmi gu vi ša, gu našabuṃṣanah!
| phrase = nęltayų viṣāmi gu vi ša, gu našabuṃṣanah!
Line 1,243: Line 1,286:
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lillaukų nanū gu yaccechlašute ša.
| phrase = lillaukų širē gu yaccechlašute ša.
| gloss = moment-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. <small>NEG</small>=request.<small>HUMBLE-INF</small>-do.<small>HUMBLE-PRES.IND.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.=<small>NEG</small>.
| gloss = moment-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. <small>NEG</small>=request.<small>HUMBLE-INF</small>-do.<small>HUMBLE-PRES.IND.1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.=<small>NEG</small>.
| translation = Just a moment, please.
| translation = Just a moment, please.
Line 1,264: Line 1,307:
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = mārenīs lēn nanū mbinē.
| phrase = mārenīs lēn širē mbinē.
| gloss = mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. more. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| gloss = mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. more. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = I prefer mangoes.
| translation = I prefer mangoes.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = mārenīs julkhenīs lēn nanū mbinē.
| phrase = mārenīs julkhenīs lēn širē mbinē.
| gloss = mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. peach-<small>ABL.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. more. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| gloss = mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. peach-<small>ABL.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. more. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = I prefer mangoes to peaches.
| translation = I prefer mangoes to peaches.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = julkhenīs lēn mbinē, mārenīs ni nanū.
| phrase = julkhenīs lēn mbinē, mārenīs ni širē.
| gloss = peach-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. but. more.
| gloss = peach-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. <small>1SG.LOC</small>. like.<small>IND.PRES.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. mango-<small>EXESS.PL</small>. but. more.
| translation = I like peaches, but I prefer mangoes.
| translation = I like peaches, but I prefer mangoes.
Line 1,329: Line 1,372:
To avoid nestling a sentence inside another one, outside of aulic styles the sentences are simply juxtaposed; the first of the following examples is grammatically correct, but virtually every Chlouvānem speaker prefers a simpler structure like the second one:
To avoid nestling a sentence inside another one, outside of aulic styles the sentences are simply juxtaposed; the first of the following examples is grammatically correct, but virtually every Chlouvānem speaker prefers a simpler structure like the second one:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = kaminæne lære læjle ānotē lę amboya no naviṣyu yæyute.
| phrase = kaminæne lære širēmye ānotē lę amboya no naviṣyu yæyute.
| gloss = now. yesterday. chair-<small>LOC.SG</small>. lie_on.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. find_accidentally.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. and. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>
| gloss = now. yesterday. chair-<small>LOC.SG</small>. lie_on.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. find_accidentally.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. and. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>
| translation = I am now reading the book that yesterday I accidentally found lying on a chair.
| translation = I am now reading the book that yesterday I accidentally found lying on a chair.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = læjle ānotē naviṣyu lære amboyaṃte kaminæne naviṣyu yæyute.
| phrase = širēmye ānotē naviṣyu lære amboyaṃte kaminæne naviṣyu yæyute.
| gloss = chair-<small>LOC.SG</small>. lie_on.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. yesterday. find_accidentally.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. now. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>
| gloss = chair-<small>LOC.SG</small>. lie_on.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. yesterday. find_accidentally.<small>IND.PERF-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. now. book-<small>ACC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>
| translation = I am now reading the book that yesterday I accidentally found lying on a chair.
| translation = I am now reading the book that yesterday I accidentally found lying on a chair.
Line 1,342: Line 1,385:
Structures corresponding to those formed with subordinating conjunctions in most European languages are also not reduced, and built by using the appropriate correlative in the sentence that corresponds to the main clause in those languages. For example, a temporal correlative "when [S1], [S2]" is realized as "[S1], then, [S2]" as in the sentence given below:
Structures corresponding to those formed with subordinating conjunctions in most European languages are also not reduced, and built by using the appropriate correlative in the sentence that corresponds to the main clause in those languages. For example, a temporal correlative "when [S1], [S2]" is realized as "[S1], then, [S2]" as in the sentence given below:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilyā ñæltah līlekhaitom tesmudhiṣya ātiya lei lairkeikom khlavasiṣya.
| phrase = lilyā ñæltah līlekhaitom tesmudhiṣya ātiya lei lairkeikom lāvasiṣya.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN.DIR </small>. male's_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. Līlekhaitē-<small>DAT</small>. depart_with_plane-<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. then. <small>1S.ERG</small>. airport-<small>DAT.SG</small>. go_with.<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN.DIR </small>. male's_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. Līlekhaitē-<small>DAT</small>. depart_with_plane-<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. then. <small>1S.ERG</small>. airport-<small>DAT.SG</small>. go_with.<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = When my sister takes the plane to Līlekhaitē, I will go with her to the airport.
| translation = When my sister takes the plane to Līlekhaitē, I will go with her to the airport.
Line 1,368: Line 1,411:
}}
}}


==Declarative content clauses==
==Indirect interrogative clauses==
Declarative content clauses are built in two possible ways: one using juxtaposed clauses, mandatory when the tenses differ and otherwise more proper of common speech, and a more formal one with the infinitive:
===''pūmbu''===
The word ''pūmbu'' (whether) marks indirect interrogative clauses; unlike most particles (the other exception being ''pū'', which it is derived from), it is normally found at the beginning of the sentence.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣastirvam svātārṣake ndulširu.
| phrase = pūmbu yanahuppē gu tarliru ša.
| gloss = Ṣastirvam.<small>DIR</small>. be_right-<small>INF</small>. be_sure.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-1SG.COMMON</small>.
| gloss = whether. make_fun_of-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>NEG=</small>know<small>-EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.1SG.COMMON=NEG</small>.
| translation = I am sure Ṣastirvam is right.
| translation = I don't know, whether [others] are making fun of her/him.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣastirvam svātārṣire ndulširu.
| gloss = Ṣastirvam.<small>DIR</small>. be_right.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-3SG.COMMON</small>. be_sure.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-1SG.COMMON</small>.
| translation = I am sure Ṣastirvam is right.
}}
Indirect speech is generally handled through the use of a quotative marker ([[#Quoted_speech|see the corresponding section]]), but such declarative content clauses are typically used with verbs of perception:
{{Gloss
| phrase = laukhlyai bismṛcce mišaute.
| gloss = small_aquatic_lizard-<small>DIR.PL</small>. run_away.<small>MONOD-INF</small>. see.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I saw the lizards run away.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kalineh kitom naliven mendute.
| gloss = female's_younger_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. house-<small>DAT.SG.</small>. walk_into.<small>MONOD.IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.AGENT-EXP</small>. hear.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>..
| translation = I hear my sister walking into the house.
}}
 
==Indirect interrogative clauses==
===''pūmbu''===
The word ''pūmbu'' (whether) marks indirect interrogative clauses; unlike most particles (the other exception being ''pū'', which it is derived from), it is normally found at the beginning of the sentence.
{{Gloss
| phrase = pūmbu yanahuppē gu tarliru ša.
| gloss = whether. make_fun_of-<small>EXP-IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>NEG=</small>know<small>-EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PRES.1SG.COMMON=NEG</small>.
| translation = I don't know, whether [others] are making fun of her/him.
}}
}}
Often, the clause marked by ''pūmbu'' may have a volitive meaning:
Often, the clause marked by ''pūmbu'' may have a volitive meaning:
Line 1,412: Line 1,431:
}}
}}


==Translation of sentential subjects==
==Sentential subjects and objects==
Using little subordination, sentential subjects common to English are rendered in different ways in Chlouvānem.
Chlouvānem often uses juxtaposition even among its structures expressing sentential subjects and objects, not requiring any linking word.


Sentences expressing judgement are often translatable with evidentials (and are therefore single-clause):
Sentences expressing judgement are often translatable with evidentials (and are therefore single-clause):
Line 1,431: Line 1,450:
| translation = They say that my son is working, but I doubt it.
| translation = They say that my son is working, but I doubt it.
}}
}}
Other sentences are simply juxtaposed, not subordinated. A dummy "that" in the appropriate case may be inserted if the required case is not direct, accusative, or ergative, but it's often omitted:
Other sentences are simply juxtaposed, not subordinated, despite being integral components of the sentence. A dummy "that" in the appropriate case may be inserted if the required case is not direct, accusative, or ergative, but it's often omitted:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = kānyahǣṣa demyāṣati dṛkte [nanāt] yavita pęrdirek?
| phrase = kānyahǣṣa demyāṣati dṛkte [nanāt] yavita pęrdirek?
Line 1,442: Line 1,461:
| gloss = Lilemāvya.<small>DIR</small>. this-<small>ACC</small>. mistake-<small>ACC.SG</small>. take.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. [that-<small>ACC</small>.] <small>NEG</small>=believe.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT=NEG</small>.
| gloss = Lilemāvya.<small>DIR</small>. this-<small>ACC</small>. mistake-<small>ACC.SG</small>. take.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. [that-<small>ACC</small>.] <small>NEG</small>=believe.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT=NEG</small>.
| translation = I don't believe [the fact that] Lilemāvya made this mistake.
| translation = I don't believe [the fact that] Lilemāvya made this mistake.
}}
===Declarative content clauses===
Declarative content clauses are built in two possible ways: one using juxtaposed clauses, mandatory when the tenses differ and otherwise more proper of common speech, and a more formal one with the infinitive:
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣastirvam svātārṣake ndulširu.
| gloss = Ṣastirvam.<small>DIR</small>. be_right-<small>INF</small>. be_sure.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-1SG.COMMON</small>.
| translation = I am sure Ṣastirvam is right.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣastirvam svātārṣire ndulširu.
| gloss = Ṣastirvam.<small>DIR</small>. be_right.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-3SG.COMMON</small>. be_sure.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-INTERIOR-1SG.COMMON</small>.
| translation = I am sure Ṣastirvam is right.
}}
Indirect speech is generally handled through the use of a quotative marker ([[#Quoted_speech|see the corresponding section]]), but such declarative content clauses are typically used with verbs of perception:
{{Gloss
| phrase = laukhlyai bismṛcce mišaute.
| gloss = small_aquatic_lizard-<small>DIR.PL</small>. run_away.<small>MONOD-INF</small>. see.<small>IND.PAST-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I saw the lizards run away.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kalineh kitom naliven mendute.
| gloss = female's_younger_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. house-<small>DAT.SG.</small>. walk_into.<small>MONOD.IND.PRES.3SG.EXTERIOR.AGENT-EXP</small>. hear.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>..
| translation = I hear my sister walking into the house.
}}
}}


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Predictive conditional sentences and non-past speculative conditional ones are built mostly in the same way, with the if-clause having an imperfective subjunctive verb and the main clause having a choice between indicative or subjunctive, with tense and aspect dependant on meaning. The indicative in the main clause denotes a very high probability the result will happen should the condition be fulfilled; speculative conditionals never use the indicative in the main clause, and may be distinguished by adding the adverb ''lūminaise'' after ''pū''.
Predictive conditional sentences and non-past speculative conditional ones are built mostly in the same way, with the if-clause having an imperfective subjunctive verb and the main clause having a choice between indicative or subjunctive, with tense and aspect dependant on meaning. The indicative in the main clause denotes a very high probability the result will happen should the condition be fulfilled; speculative conditionals never use the indicative in the main clause, and may be distinguished by adding the adverb ''lūminaise'' after ''pū''.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gī lališire hāris ulgutāṃta.
| phrase = lili mæn pū širē nūlastām gī lališire hāris ulgutāṃta.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. more. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.FUTINT-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. more. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>IND.FUTINT-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = If I had more money, I'd surely buy a new carpet.
| translation = If I had more money, I'd surely buy a new carpet.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gī lališire hāris lgutēt.
| phrase = lili mæn pū širē nūlastām gī lališire hāris lgutēt.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. more. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. more. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = If I had more money, I'd buy a new carpet.
| translation = If I had more money, I'd buy a new carpet.
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lili mæn pū lūminaise maibu nūlastān gī lališire cūlla lgutēt.
| phrase = lili mæn pū lūminaise maibu nūlastām gī lališire cūlla lgutēt.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. if_only. enough. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. if. if_only. enough. money.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>SUBJ.IMPF.EXP.3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. be_new.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.INTERIOR.COMMON</small>. carpet.<small>DIR.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.
| translation = If only I had enough money, I'd buy a new car.
| translation = If only I had enough money, I'd buy a new car.
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If the if-clause is omitted, then a declarative particle '''e''' is usually put at the end of the sentence:
If the if-clause is omitted, then a declarative particle '''e''' is usually put at the end of the sentence:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = lili mæn emibat yaltat lgutēt e!
| phrase = lili mæn emibat ilātit lgutēt e!
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. one-<small>EXESS</small>. yaltan-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>DECLAR</small>.
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. one-<small>EXESS</small>. ilāti-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. buy.<small>SUBJ.PERF-EXP-3.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>DECLAR</small>.
| translation = I'd buy it for one yaltan!
| translation = I'd buy it for one ilāti!
}}
}}


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===Concession clauses===
===Concession clauses===
The typical way of building a concession clause (''khlaketanęs kulkāram'') is by simply coordinating two clauses with '''ni''' (but):
The typical way of building a concession clause (''ṭvāketanęs kulkāram'') is by simply coordinating two clauses with '''ni''' (but):
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivita tattekilē, nelyęru nanau ni ukulāltaṃte.
| phrase = yaivita tattekilē, nelyęru nanau ni ukulāltaṃte.
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| gloss = room-<small>LOC.SG</small>. face-<small>ACC.SG</small>. paint.<small>IND.PERF-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. <small>REFL.GEN-GEN</small>. daughter-<small>GEN.SG</small>. relationship_partner-<small>DAT.SG</small>. say.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| gloss = room-<small>LOC.SG</small>. face-<small>ACC.SG</small>. paint.<small>IND.PERF-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. <small>REFL.GEN-GEN</small>. daughter-<small>GEN.SG</small>. relationship_partner-<small>DAT.SG</small>. say.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = (S)he told his/her daughter's boyfriend/girlfriend that she is painting her face in her room.
| translation = (S)he told his/her daughter's boyfriend/girlfriend that she is painting her face in her room.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = cāṃkṝsiṭ, karthāgo bīdruga tati vvlirute.
| gloss = be_final-<small>ADV</small>. Carthage.<small>DIR</small>. destroy.<small>OPT.PERF-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. think.<small>IND.PRES-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
| translation = [[w:Carthago delenda est|Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam.]] <small>(literally: "last [but not least], I think: 'Carthage must be destroyed.'")</small>
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
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This is the norm even in more complex sentences:
This is the norm even in more complex sentences:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = hānihæmma mæn jæhimīnta utsmā taili lācāk menni, lānicunyų nanū gun ē ša mīmišvayatite nin lañšijijeltsute tati yaiva laltesām kulekte.
| phrase = hānihæmma mæn jæhimīnta utsmā taili lācāk menni, lānicunyų širē gun ē ša mīmišvayatite nin lañšijijeltsute tati yaiva laltesām kulekte.
| gloss = Hānihæmma.<small>DIR</small>. <small>TOP</small>. Jæhimīnta.<small>DIR</small>. that_much.<small>MEDIAL</small>. much. love.<small>IND.PRES-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. because. / lānicunih-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. <small>NEG</small>=be.<small>IND.PAST.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>=<small>NEG</small>. see-<small>FREQ-SUBJ.IMPF-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. after. marry-<small>DESID-IND.PRES-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. all. friend-<small>DAT.PL</small>. say.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| gloss = Hānihæmma.<small>DIR</small>. <small>TOP</small>. Jæhimīnta.<small>DIR</small>. that_much.<small>MEDIAL</small>. much. love.<small>IND.PRES-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. because. / lānicunih-<small>ABL.SG</small>. more. <small>NEG</small>=be.<small>IND.PAST.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>=<small>NEG</small>. see-<small>FREQ-SUBJ.IMPF-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. after. marry-<small>DESID-IND.PRES-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. all. friend-<small>DAT.PL</small>. say.<small>IND.PAST-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = Hānihæmma loved Jæhimīnta so much that she<sub><small>1</small></sub> told all her<sub><small>1</small></sub> friends that she<sub><small>1</small></sub> wanted to marry her<sub><small>2</small></sub> after having seen her<sub><small>2</small></sub> for only one lunar phase!<ref>Example taken from a translation challenge on the ''Constructed Languages'' Facebook group, posted on Sep 8, 2018, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
| translation = Hānihæmma loved Jæhimīnta so much that she<sub><small>1</small></sub> told all her<sub><small>1</small></sub> friends that she<sub><small>1</small></sub> wanted to marry her<sub><small>2</small></sub> after having seen her<sub><small>2</small></sub> for only one lunar phase!<ref>Example taken from a translation challenge on the ''Constructed Languages'' Facebook group, posted on Sep 8, 2018, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
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| gloss = Ajāɂilbādhi-<small>DAT</small>. go_with_vehicle.<small>MULTIDIR-IND.FUT-2SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>NEG</small>=know.<small>IND.PAST-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
| gloss = Ajāɂilbādhi-<small>DAT</small>. go_with_vehicle.<small>MULTIDIR-IND.FUT-2SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>NEG</small>=know.<small>IND.PAST-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>=<small>NEG</small>.
| translation = I did not know you would have been to Ajāɂilbādhi.
| translation = I did not know you would have been to Ajāɂilbādhi.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nūrya mæn gṇyāvirek ātiya gatvān ndēviṣya tati lūṣya tṛlirek.
| gloss = child.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. give_birth-<small>EXP-INTERIOR-IND.PAST.3SG.COMMON</small>. then. chief-<small>TRANSL.SG</small>. become-<small>FUT-IND.3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. Lūṣya.<small>DIR</small>. know.<small>IND.PAST-1SG.COMMON.INTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Lūṣya knew, when it was born, that her child would become chief.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/heefa8/1282nd_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''1282nd Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Jun 23, 2020, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
}}


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