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Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs:
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs:
* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked);
* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked);
* '''agent-trigger''' (''darīnūkire tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only);
* '''agent-trigger''' (''darīyūkire tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only);
* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe'');
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The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined:
The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined:
* '''indicative''' (''chlåñjausire darišam'') - the realis mood;
* '''indicative''' (''urḍāmiti darišam'') - the realis mood;
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands;
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands;
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.
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* '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness.
* '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness.
Finally, Chlouvānem also has a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter).
Finally, Chlouvānem also has a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter).
Considering that non-indicative moods do not mark evidentiality, a single verb may have up to 39,781 conjugated forms (including the infinitive), excluding analytic constructions.


==Verb classes==
==Verb classes==
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# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''.
# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''.
# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'')
# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'')
# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kirake'' "to love": ''kairē — kirek — ikira''.
# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kṣitrake'' "to matter, be on topic": ''kṣaitrē — kṣitrek — ikṣitra''.
# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''.
# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''.
# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''.
# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''.
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* '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''lyēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''lyēnu, lyēni, lyēnē''...; past exterior ''lyēnau, lyēnei, lyēk''.
* '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''lyēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''lyēnu, lyēni, lyēnē''...; past exterior ''lyēnau, lyēnei, lyēk''.
* All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''...
* All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''...
* Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē<ref>Written ''švęe'' in some older texts.</ref>''...; past ext. ''švehau, švehei, švęk''...
* Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē''...; past ext. ''švehau, švehei, švęk''...


In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are:
In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are:
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Desiderative examples:
Desiderative examples:
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''peith-'' → ''pe-peith-s'' → ''pepeits-'' (pf. stem ''epepeits-'')
* ''mbiṇḍhe'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''mbiṇḍh-'' → ''mi-mbeṇḍh-s'' → ''mimbeñc-'' (pf. stem ''imimbeñc-'')
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'')
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'')
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'')
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'')
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Necessitative examples:
Necessitative examples:
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)” → ''pīpeitsū-'' (pf. stem. ''epīpeitsū-'')
* ''mbasike'' “to draw” → ''mīmbašū-'' (pf. stem. ''emīmbašū-'')
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'')
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'')
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Potential examples:

Potential examples:

* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)” → ''pepeithnā-'' (pf. stem. ''epepeithnā-'')
* ''mbiṇḍhe'' “to go (multid.)” → ''mimbeṇḍhṇā-'' (pf. stem. ''emimbeṇḍhṇā-'')
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” → ''šukhlonā-'' (pf. stem. ''ūšukhlonā-'')
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” → ''šukhlonā-'' (pf. stem. ''ūšukhlonā-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'')
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Permissive examples:
Permissive examples:
* ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'')
* ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'')
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, → ''pūpeithūd-'' (pf. stem. ''epūpeithūd-'')
* ''bhike'' “to take care of”, → ''būbhyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''ibūbhyūd-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'')


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#* The reportative (or "first reportative") marks a reported situation likely to be true, marked by '''-emi-''';
#* The reportative (or "first reportative") marks a reported situation likely to be true, marked by '''-emi-''';
#* The dubitative reportative (or "second reportative") marks a reported situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-enab(u)-'''.
#* The dubitative reportative (or "second reportative") marks a reported situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-enab(u)-'''.
# The second stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked)
# The second stem extension is '''-ug-''', marking the optative mood.
# The third stem extension is the causative marker '''-is-''' (non-causatives are not marked)
# The third stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked)
# The fourth stem extension is '''-(a)mo-''', which marks the optative mood.
# The fourth stem extension is the causative marker '''-is-''' (non-causatives are not marked)


Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai). The ''-is-'' stem extension, when preceding ''-d-'' initial personal termination, in contemporary Chlouvānem predictably disappears, lengthening the preceding vowel (e.g. ''meš-is-de'' → ''mešīde''). In Archaic and Early Classical Chlouvānem, however, there were two options, varying between dialects. One is the same as the current one, which reflects a prior voicing of '''s'''; in the other, it is ''-d-'' which loses its voicing, forming ''-st-'' clusters (or ''-ṣṭ-'' in certain dialects, esp. in the Archaic Chlouvānem of some parts of the Holy Books), i.e. ''meš-is-de'' → ''mešiste'' or ''mešiṣṭe''.
Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai). In the ''-is-'' stem extension, when preceding ''-b-'' initial personal terminations, the final ''-s'' predictably disappears, lengthening the preceding vowel (e.g. ''meš-is-ba'' → ''mešība'').


Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not followed by the causative marker) becomes '''-ęr-''' in the present of class 11 ''-ah'' verbs.
Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not followed by the causative marker) becomes '''-ęr-''' in the present of class 11 ''-ah'' verbs.
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|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective
! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective
| -u || -i || -ē || -sme || -dya || -de || -mim || -šin || -āhai
| -u || -i || -ē || -sme || -bin || -ba || -inta<br/>-ata<sup>1</sup> || -šin || -āhai
|-
|-
! Perfect<br/>Opt. Perfective
! Perfect<br/>Opt. Perfective
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|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Past
! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Past
| -au || -ei || -(e)k || -ram || -rais || -dat || -ābhe || -āṣe || -aika
| -au || -ei || -(e)k || -ram || -rais || -rat || -ābhe || -āṣe || -aika
|-
|-
! Simple future
! Simple future
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| -ēta || -ēti || -ēt || -ētham || -ēthai || -ēt || -eine || -eiše || -ēt
| -ēta || -ēti || -ēt || -ētham || -ēthai || -ēt || -eine || -eiše || -ēt
|}
|}
 
# The ''-ata'' termination is used after the interior, causative, and optative stem extensions (cf. ''miširata'' "we [plur.] see each other", ''mišisata'' "we are shown", ''miširisata'' "we learn"), otherwise ''-inta'' is used, together with a thematic vowel for thematic verbs (hence ''mešenta'' (← ''meš-a-inta'') "we are seen").
Additional notes:
Additional notes:
* The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme -ardia -arde ; -ąim -ąšin -ah'', with no distinct evidential forms.
* The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme -ąbin -ąba ; -ęnta -ąšin -ah''.
* The imperfective optative singular has the irregular saṃdhi forms ''-mau, -mai, -mo''.
* The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''.
* The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''.
* The third person interior imperfective subjunctive is ''-irya'' instead of *-ir-ī.
* The third person interior imperfective subjunctive is ''-irya'' instead of *-ir-ī.
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: ''blutake nacite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for yourself"
: ''blutake nacite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for yourself"
: ''blutake naiṣite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for others"
: ''blutake naiṣite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for others"
The verb ''nacce'' is often used as a polite optative for imperative requests, as seen in many common forms such as ''daudike nacamai'' "please" (literally something like "may you want (<small>RESP</small>), benefitting yourself") or ''kaukulke nacamaite'' "please tell..."<ref>Note that formal Chlouvānem has a plethora of ways to form polite and respectful imperatives, and a common one, especially when talking to higher-ranked people, is to reformulate an imperative as a humble statement; in such a case, "please tell" could be reformulated as ''kaukulke yacce cīchlakṣūyute'' "I humbly have to ask to tell", or even (though quite bookishly) up to something like ''kaukulke yacce chlašatite garpirati pīpaipsūyu'' "I (<small>HUMB</small>) have to be bad (lit. "take the bad manner of") and humbly ask to tell".</ref>. The polite optative ''nacce'' followed by ''garpirati paibu'' (lit. something like "I'm taken to behave badly") is a very common set phrase for making requests.
The verb ''nacce'' is often used as a polite optative for imperative requests, as seen in many common forms such as ''daudike nacugi'' "please" (literally something like "may you want (<small>RESP</small>), benefitting yourself") or ''kaukulke nacugite'' "please tell..."<ref>Note that formal Chlouvānem has a plethora of ways to form polite and respectful imperatives, and a common one, especially when talking to higher-ranked people, is to reformulate an imperative as a humble statement; in such a case, "please tell" could be reformulated as ''kaukulke yacce cīchlakṣūyute'' "I humbly have to ask to tell", or even (though quite bookishly) up to something like ''kaukulke yacce chlašatite garpirati pīpaipsūyu'' "I (<small>HUMB</small>) have to be bad (lit. "take the bad manner of") and humbly ask to tell".</ref>. The polite optative ''nacce'' followed by ''garpirati paibu'' (lit. something like "I'm taken to behave badly") is a very common set phrase for making requests.


The verb ''pṛdhake'' (''pardhē - pṛdhek - apṛdha'', respectful equivalent of ''muṣke'' "to ask") may be used with all verbs and virtually replaces the desiderative ''junya'', i.e. implies "to want to". Note that the desiderative ''junya'' of another auxiliary such as ''gāke'' (''hagās-'') or ''nacce'' (''nanākṣ-'') can still be used for virtually the same meaning - however, for some speakers, ''pṛdhake'' may imply a less strict desire.
The verb ''pṛdhake'' (''pardhē - pṛdhek - apṛdha'', respectful equivalent of ''muṣke'' "to ask") may be used with all verbs and virtually replaces the desiderative ''junya'', i.e. implies "to want to". Note that the desiderative ''junya'' of another auxiliary such as ''gāke'' (''hagās-'') or ''nacce'' (''nanākṣ-'') can still be used for virtually the same meaning - however, for some speakers, ''pṛdhake'' may imply a less strict desire.
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==Irregular verbs==
==Irregular verbs==
Chlouvānem has only a very small number of truly irregular verbs, as most verbs conform in some way to one of the various stem classes. Even among irregular verbs, many of them are only irregular in the formation of one of their three basic stems; only seven verbs (''lulke, milke, mṛcce, mišake, lilke, jalle'', and ''tilah'') have at least one entirely suppletive stem.
Chlouvānem has only a very small number of truly irregular verbs, as most verbs conform in some way to one of the various stem classes. Even among irregular verbs, many of them are only irregular in the formation of one of their three basic stems; only seven verbs (''lulke, milke, mṛcce, mišake, lilke, jalle'', and ''tilah'') have at least one entirely suppletive stem.
There are two true defective verbs: ''ṛṣme'' (to plan, to be going to) and the honorific ''tilah'' (not a self-standing verb).
There is one true defective verb: ''ṛṣme'' (to plan, to be going to).


Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are:
Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are:
* ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa''
* ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa''
** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...'').
** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...'').
** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lau-'' (instead of expected *lammo-), conjugated as a regular verb (''lāvu, lāvi, lāvē...'').
** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lau-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''lāvu, lāvi, lāvē...'').
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka''
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka''
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...'').
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...'').
** The optative stem is irregular ''målu-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''målū, målvi, målvē...'').
** The optative stem is irregular ''målu-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''målū, målvi, målvē...'').
** Also has the irregular stem ''mūṃchl-'' for the desiderative junya.
** Also has the irregular stems ''mīmakṣ-'' for the desiderative and ''meliknā-'' for the potential junyai.
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca''
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca''
** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting.
** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting.
* ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša''
* ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša''
** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting.
** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting.
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, lælī''
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, ellā''
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting.
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting.
** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junya.
** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junya.
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The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at); also note that ''tamišake'' has the same past tense suppletion as ''mišake'', i.e. ''tamešē - tāsmik - temiša''. The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs.
The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at); also note that ''tamišake'' has the same past tense suppletion as ''mišake'', i.e. ''tamešē - tāsmik - temiša''. The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs.


''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, ñoergē''), but is regular everywhere else (''ñoerasme, ñoeradia''...).
''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, ñoergē''), but is regular everywhere else (''ñoerasme, ñoeradya''...).


''vṝlke'' (to plant), in the past, may use for the 3SG visual evidential both ''vṝlik'' (regular) and ''vṝk'' (quite formal); in the perfect, both the regular stem ''avṝl-'' and the irregular, literary ''rūrl-'' are found.
''vṝlke'' (to plant), in the past, may use for the 3rd person singular both ''vṝlik'' (regular) and ''vṝk'' (quite formal); in the perfect, both the regular stem ''avṝl-'' and the irregular, literary ''rūrl-'' are found.


Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels:
Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels:
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura''
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura''
* ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura''
* ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura''
Three verbs have ''(a+) -ut'' in the infinitive and perfect, ''-at'' in the past, and ''att'' in the present:
* ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage": ''lattē — (latau) lak — aluta''
* ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce": ''ssattē — (ssatau) ssak — assuta''
* ''sprutake'' "to join, link": ''sprattē — (spratau) sprak — aspruta''
Two verbs have '''(a+) -agv'' but ''-avu-'' in the past:
* ''lagvake'' "to assume": ''lagvē — lavuk — alagva''
* ''ṣṭagvake'' "to carve": ''ṣṭagvē — ṣṭavuk — aṣṭagva''


Other various irregular verbs:
Other various irregular verbs:
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|-
|-
! 2nd
! 2nd
| jelli || nīres || reri || jalṣyari || nīdya
| jelli || nīres || reri || jalṣyari || nībin
|-
|-
! 3rd
! 3rd
| jali || nīdat || ri || jalṣya || nīde
| jali || nīrat || ri || jalṣya || nība
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
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{| class="redtable lightredbg"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Person !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive
! colspan=2 | Person !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive !! Intensive
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| gati || jamu || jijālyu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu
| gati || jogu || jijālyu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu || jājlīyu
|-
|-
! 2nd
! 2nd
| gīs || jami || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi
| gīs || jogi || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi || jājlīyi<br/>(or ''jājlī'')
|-
|-
! 3rd
! 3rd
| gī || jame || jijālye || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē
| gī || jogē || jijālye || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē || jājlīyē
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| gīndu || jamosme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelaisme || jījalūtsme
| gīndu || jokṣme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelaisme || jījalūtsme || jājlīsme
|-
|-
! 2nd
! 2nd
| gīndi || jamodya || jijālšadya || jājalšūdya || jelādya || jījalūndya
| gīndi || jombin || jijālšabin || jājalšūbin || jelābin || jījalūmbin || jājlībin
|-
|-
! 3rd
! 3rd
| gī || jamode || jijālšade || jājalšūde || jelāde || jījalūnde
| gī || jomba || jijālšaba || jājalšūba || jelāba || jījalūmba || jājlība
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| gīnam || jamomim || jijālmim || jājalšūmim || jelmim || jījalūdmim
| gīnam || jogata || jijālinta || jājalšūvinta || jelinta || jījalūdinta || jājlīnta
|-
|-
! 2nd
! 2nd
| gīnes || jamošin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin
| gīnes || jokṣin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin || jājlīšin
|-
|-
! 3rd
! 3rd
| gī || jamāhai || jijālyāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai
| gī || jogāhai || jijālyāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai || jājlīyāhai
|}
|}


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** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe".
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe".


==Analytic constructions and auxiliary verbs==
==Analytic constructions==
Chlouvānem uses many analytic constructions - including auxiliary and compound verbs - in order to convey some shades of meaning. Most of these use either a participle or the infinitive as the form of the lexical verb:
The following section lists the most common analytic constructions in Chlouvānem; they are either verbs requiring a subjunctive clause argument or true auxiliary verbs, requiring an infinitive and taking all inflections that would have been on the lexical verbs.
* ''perfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''jalle'' in the past or future tense: compound construction used for pluperfect and future perfect. It is not wrong to use it with a present tense, but the meaning does not change from the bare perfect.<br/> Note that, for the pluperfect, the bare perfect is often used instead, both in literature as in common speech.
===Main verbs with subjunctive arguments===
** ''yųlētate lā nīvau'' "I had eaten"
* ''perfective subjunctive'' + ''lā'' + ''jalle'' in the past or future tense: analytic pluperfect and future perfect (the bare perfect is used instead in literature and in common speech, especially to replace the pluperfect):
** ''yųlētate lā jalṣyam'' "I will have eaten"
*: ''yųlētate lā nīvau'' "I had eaten"

* ''imperfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''jalle'' in the needed tense: compound construction used for the progressive aspect in the three tenses (present, past, future). In the present, the form of ''jalle'' is omitted for the third person, or for all persons if a pronoun is present.
*: ''yųlētate lā jalṣyam'' "I will have eaten"
** ''yųlatite lā ū'' "I am eating"
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''lā'' + ''jalle'' in the needed tense: analytic construction for the progressive aspect. In the present, ''jalle'' can be omitted if needed [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Zero-copular_sentences|(see the corresponding section in Syntax)]].
** ''yųlatite lā nīvau'' "I was eating"
*: ''yųlatite lā ū'' "I am eating"
** ''yųlatite lā jalṣyam'' "I will be eating"
*: ''yųlatite lā nīvau'' "I was eating"
* ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): compound construction used for a habitual action in present, past, or future tense. It is not used with motion verbs in the present, as the multidirectional verb already unambiguously has this meaning.
*: ''yųlatite lā jalṣyam'' "I will be eating"
** ''yaive prājamne yahike ñǣɂute'' "I am used to read every evening"
* ''subjunctive'' + interior forms of ''męlike'' (to give): to do X in advance; when used with the perfective subjunctive it can also have a pluperfect meaning.
** ''yaive prājamne yahike ñǣɂaṃte'' "I used to read every evening"
*: ''yųlatite męliru'' "I eat in advance"
** ''yaive prājamne yahike ñǣɂiṣyaṃte'' "I will be used to read every evening"
*: ''yųlētate męlirau'' "I ate in advance" → "I had already eaten"
* ''infinitive'' + ''nartaflulke'' (to reach): to come to X, to end up X-ing, to result in X-ing
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''daudike'' (to want): to want to X (alternative to the desiderative ''junya'', especially common in the Northeast). If the triggered argument is the same and the trigger is agent-trigger on both verbs, it can be omitted in the subjunctive one. It is different from the desiderative in that the two verbs can have different triggers.
** ''yųlake nartatefliven'' "(s)he ended up eating"
*: ''kulati(te) daudyute'' "I want to talk" (cf. ''šukilyute'')
** ''lañšijilde nartaflunirāhe'' "they ended up marrying each other"
*: ''kulīte daudyute'' "I want him/her to talk"
* ''infinitive'' (or more formally ''perfective subjunctive'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed:
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' (less commonly ''infinitive'') + ''novake'' (to be able to): can X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential ''junya'').
** ''valde kitē'' / ''uvaldēt kitē'' "it is kept opened"
*: ''dratite novē'' or ''dṛke novute'' "I can do [it]" (cf. ''dadrenānute'')
* ''infinitive'' + either ''įstiāke'' (to hang from) or ''maitiāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect, to be about to X
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''širgake'' (to be possible): may X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential ''junya'').
** ''yųlake įstetimu'' "I am about to eat"
*: ''dratite šergē'' "I may do [it]" (cf. ''dadrenānute'')
** ''yahike maitimē'' "it is about to be read"
===Constructions with auxiliary verbs===
* ''subjunctive'' + interior forms of ''męlike'' (to give): to do X in advance — it can also be interpreted as a (plu)perfect if with perfect subjunctive:
* ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): analytic construction for habitual actions in present, past, or future tense; the perfect tenses focus on the result. Note that multidirectional motion verbs in the present tense already have this meaning compared to the monodirectional ones.
** ''yųlatite męliru'' "I eat in advance"
*: ''yaive prājānye yæyake ñǣɂute'' "I am used to read every evening."
** ''yųlētate męlirau'' "I ate in advance" → "I had already eaten"
*: ''yaive prājānye yæyake ñǣɂaute'' "I used to read every evening."
* ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X
*: ''yaive prājānye yæyake ñǣɂiṣyaṃte'' "I will be used to read every evening."
** ''sū yahike paṣṭemešu'' "I let you read"
*: ''yaive prājānye yæyake añǣɂaṃte'' "I got used to read every evening."
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to ''mai-'' prefixed verbs)
*: ''yaive prājānye yæyake añǣɂāltaṃte'' "I will get used to read every evening."
** ''nanau yahike mālchute'' "I keep reading that" (synonym of ''nanau maiteyašu'')
* ''infinitive'' (in more formal language ''perfective subjunctive'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed.
* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing:
*: ''valde kitē'' "it is kept opened"
** ''tatyāke nūkhute'' "I'm still standing"
*: ''valdēt kitē'' "it is kept opened"
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''daudike'' (to want): to want to X (alternative to the desiderative ''junia'' commonly used especially in the Northeast). If the triggered argument is the same and the trigger is agent-trigger on both, it can be omitted in the subjunctive verb:
* ''infinitive'' + ''nartalulke'' (to reach): to come to X, to end up X-ing, to result in X-ing.
** ''kulati(te) daudyute'' "I want to talk" (= ''šukiliute'')
*: ''yųlake nartateliven'' "(s)he ends up eating"
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''širgake'' (to be possible): may X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential)
*: ''lañšijilde nartadāmirdat'' "they ended up marrying each other"
** ''dratite šergē'' "I may do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'')
*: ''valde nartailīsa'' "it has resulted in it being open"
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' (less commonly ''infinitive'') + ''novake'' (to be able to): can X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential)
* ''infinitive'' + either ''įstyāke'' (to hang from) or less commonly ''maityāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect.
** ''dratite novē'' / ''dṛkenovute'' "I can do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'')
*: ''yųlake įstetimu'' "I am about to eat"
* ''infinitive'' + ''prigirake'' (to move backwards): to redo X, to do X again
*: ''yæyake maitimē'' "it is about to be read"
** ''dhulte pritegeru'' "I rewrite, I write again"
* ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X (same meaning as the permissive ''junya'').
*: ''sū yæyake paṣṭemešu'' "I let you read" (cf. permissive ''sū īyæyūdute'')
* ''infinitive'' + ''tamišake'' (to look at): to think about doing X, to consider doing X
*: ''kitom vaske tatemešu'' "I'm considering going home"
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to many instances of ''mai-'' verbs).
*: ''nanau yæyake mālchute'' "I keep reading that" (cf. ''nanau maiteyæyu'')
* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing.
*: ''tatyāke nūkhute'' "I'm still standing"
*: ''yųlake nūkhiṣyate'' "(s)he will still be eating"
* ''infinitive'' + ''prigirake'' (to move backwards): to redo X, to do X again.
*: ''dhulte pritegeru'' "I rewrite, write [it] again"
* ''infinitive'' + ''nåndike'' (to suddenly feel the need to)
*: ''yæyake anåndyaṃte'' "I have suddenly felt the need to read."
*: ''šudhulte nåndyekte'' "(s)he suddenly felt the need to write [it] down."
* ''infinitive'' + ''pidyåjyake'' (to float in the air facing something (monodirectional)): to feel like X-ing
*: ''dorṣire taili ħaṇu yųlake pindeyåjyu'' "I want to/feel like eating an insane amount of candy/halva"
*: ''mūmikke gu pindayejyau ša'' "I didn't feel like dancing"


==Adverbs==
==Adverbs==
Adjectival verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-ęe''' (rarely ''-e'') to the stem. Thus:
→ ''See also [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Avyay.C4.ABbh.C4.81va_.28.E1.B9.ADv.C4.81daradhausire_tadmaiva.29|Chlouvānem morphology § Avyayībhāva]] for more ways of forming adverbs.''
* ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlausęe'' (scientifically, according to science)
 
* ''namęlyausake'' (stakanovist) → ''namęlyausęe'' (continuously; without any break)
Verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-siṭ''' to a consonant-final stem (only '''-iṭ''' after ''-ṣṭ(h)-''), and adding that and lengthening the final vowel of a vowel-final stem. Thus:
* ''prātūkke'' (windy) → ''prātūkęe'' (windy; like the wind)  
* ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlaussiṭ'' (scientifically, according to science)
* ''namęlyausake'' (stakanovist) → ''namęlyaussiṭ'' (continuously; without any break)
* ''prātūkke'' (windy) → ''prātūkṣiṭ'' (windy; like the wind)
* ''cāṃkrake'' (final) → ''cāṃkṝsiṭ'' (at last)
* ''bhike'' (to care) → ''bhīsiṭ'' (caringly)


There are also some irregular adverbs, made from other speech parts:
There are also some irregular adverbs, made from other speech parts:
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlærausęe'' from the related verb ''chlærausake'' (easy))
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlæraussiṭ'' from the related verb ''chlærausake'' (easy))
* ''dilake'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilęe''<ref>''dilęe'' also has the other meaning of "the same", as in ''lili dilęe dadrāṃte'' "I have done the same". ''diledile'' does not have this other meaning.</ref> but more common.)
* ''dilake'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilsiṭ''<ref>''dilsiṭ'' also has the other meaning of "the same", as in ''lili dilsiṭ dadrāṃte'' "I have done the same". ''diledile'' does not have this other meaning.</ref> but more common.)
* ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''lilyāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmyāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demyāṣati'', ''tamyāṣati'', and so on.
* ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''lilyāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmyāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demyāṣati'', ''tamyāṣati'', and so on.


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* ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better))
* ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better))
* ''taili'' - many, much
* ''taili'' - many, much
* ''nanū'' - more
* ''širē'' - more
* ''kaili'' - most
* ''kaili'' - most
* ''ṣūbha'' - few, little
* ''ṣūbha'' - few, little'
* ''daiba'' - to some extent
* ''yamei'' - "honorific" adjective
* ''yamei'' - "honorific" adjective
All numerals also belong to this category.  
All numerals also belong to this category.  
Line 540: Line 553:


==Comparatives and superlatives==
==Comparatives and superlatives==
Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either '''nanū''' (more) or '''ovat''' (less) in front of the adjective; the compared term is in ablative case; the superlative is formed by using '''yaivų''' (than all) as the compared term.
Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either '''širē''' (more) or '''ovat''' (less) in front of the adjective; the compared term is in ablative case; the superlative is formed by using '''yaivų''' (than all) as the compared term.
Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → ''nanū chlære'' → ''yaivų nanū chlære''), but "than all" in superlatives is usually omitted, therefore they use ''nanū'' also with a superlative meaning.
Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → ''širē chlære'' → ''yaivų širē chlære''), but "than all" in superlatives is usually omitted, therefore they use ''širē'' also with a superlative meaning.


This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu nanū yæyute'' "I read more than you".
This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu širē yæyute'' "I read more than you".


Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day.
Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day.
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| ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best)
| ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best)
|-
|-
| ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || ''nanū'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (more) || ''kaili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (most)
| ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || ''širē'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (more) || ''kaili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (most)
|}
|}


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