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Chlouvānem/Verbs: Difference between revisions
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Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs: | Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs: | ||
* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked); | * '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked); | ||
* '''agent-trigger''' ('' | * '''agent-trigger''' (''darīyūkire tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only); | ||
* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe''); | * '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe''); | ||
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe''); | * '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe''); | ||
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* '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness. | * '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness. | ||
Finally, Chlouvānem also has a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter). | Finally, Chlouvānem also has a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter). | ||
Considering that non-indicative moods do not mark evidentiality, a single verb may have up to 39,781 conjugated forms (including the infinitive), excluding analytic constructions. | |||
==Verb classes== | ==Verb classes== | ||
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# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''. | # The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''. | ||
# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'') | # Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'') | ||
# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and '' | # Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kṣitrake'' "to matter, be on topic": ''kṣaitrē — kṣitrek — ikṣitra''. | ||
# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''. | # Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''. | ||
# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''. | # Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''. | ||
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Desiderative examples: | Desiderative examples: | ||
* '' | * ''mbiṇḍhe'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''mbiṇḍh-'' → ''mi-mbeṇḍh-s'' → ''mimbeñc-'' (pf. stem ''imimbeñc-'') | ||
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'') | * ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'') | ||
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'') | * ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'') | ||
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Necessitative examples: | Necessitative examples: | ||
* '' | * ''mbasike'' “to draw” → ''mīmbašū-'' (pf. stem. ''emīmbašū-'') | ||
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'') | * ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'') | ||
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'') | * ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'') | ||
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Potential examples:
| Potential examples:
| ||
* '' | * ''mbiṇḍhe'' “to go (multid.)” → ''mimbeṇḍhṇā-'' (pf. stem. ''emimbeṇḍhṇā-'') | ||
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” → ''šukhlonā-'' (pf. stem. ''ūšukhlonā-'') | * ''khluke'' “to search, look for” → ''šukhlonā-'' (pf. stem. ''ūšukhlonā-'') | ||
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'') | * ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'') | ||
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Permissive examples: | Permissive examples: | ||
* ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'') | * ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'') | ||
* '' | * ''bhike'' “to take care of”, → ''būbhyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''ibūbhyūd-'') | ||
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'') | * ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'') | ||
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#* The reportative (or "first reportative") marks a reported situation likely to be true, marked by '''-emi-'''; | #* The reportative (or "first reportative") marks a reported situation likely to be true, marked by '''-emi-'''; | ||
#* The dubitative reportative (or "second reportative") marks a reported situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-enab(u)-'''. | #* The dubitative reportative (or "second reportative") marks a reported situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-enab(u)-'''. | ||
# The second stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked) | # The second stem extension is '''-ug-''', marking the optative mood. | ||
# The | # The third stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked) | ||
# The fourth stem extension is the causative marker '''-is-''' (non-causatives are not marked) | |||
Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai). | Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai). In the ''-is-'' stem extension, when preceding ''-b-'' initial personal terminations, the final ''-s'' predictably disappears, lengthening the preceding vowel (e.g. ''meš-is-ba'' → ''mešība''). | ||
Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not followed by the causative marker) becomes '''-ęr-''' in the present of class 11 ''-ah'' verbs. | Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not followed by the causative marker) becomes '''-ęr-''' in the present of class 11 ''-ah'' verbs. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective | ! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective | ||
| -u || -i || -ē || -sme || - | | -u || -i || -ē || -sme || -bin || -ba || -inta<br/>-ata<sup>1</sup> || -šin || -āhai | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Perfect<br/>Opt. Perfective | ! Perfect<br/>Opt. Perfective | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Past | ! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Past | ||
| -au || -ei || -(e)k || -ram || -rais || - | | -au || -ei || -(e)k || -ram || -rais || -rat || -ābhe || -āṣe || -aika | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Simple future | ! Simple future | ||
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# The ''-ata'' termination is used after the interior, causative, and optative stem extensions (cf. ''miširata'' "we [plur.] see each other", ''mišisata'' "we are shown", ''miširisata'' "we learn"), otherwise ''-inta'' is used, together with a thematic vowel for thematic verbs (hence ''mešenta'' (← ''meš-a-inta'') "we are seen"). | # The ''-ata'' termination is used after the interior, causative, and optative stem extensions (cf. ''miširata'' "we [plur.] see each other", ''mišisata'' "we are shown", ''miširisata'' "we learn"), otherwise ''-inta'' is used, together with a thematic vowel for thematic verbs (hence ''mešenta'' (← ''meš-a-inta'') "we are seen"). | ||
Additional notes: | Additional notes: | ||
* The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme - | * The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme -ąbin -ąba ; -ęnta -ąšin -ah''. | ||
* The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''. | * The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''. | ||
* The third person interior imperfective subjunctive is ''-irya'' instead of *-ir-ī. | * The third person interior imperfective subjunctive is ''-irya'' instead of *-ir-ī. | ||
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: ''blutake nacite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for yourself" | : ''blutake nacite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for yourself" | ||
: ''blutake naiṣite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for others" | : ''blutake naiṣite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for others" | ||
The verb ''nacce'' is often used as a polite optative for imperative requests, as seen in many common forms such as ''daudike | The verb ''nacce'' is often used as a polite optative for imperative requests, as seen in many common forms such as ''daudike nacugi'' "please" (literally something like "may you want (<small>RESP</small>), benefitting yourself") or ''kaukulke nacugite'' "please tell..."<ref>Note that formal Chlouvānem has a plethora of ways to form polite and respectful imperatives, and a common one, especially when talking to higher-ranked people, is to reformulate an imperative as a humble statement; in such a case, "please tell" could be reformulated as ''kaukulke yacce cīchlakṣūyute'' "I humbly have to ask to tell", or even (though quite bookishly) up to something like ''kaukulke yacce chlašatite garpirati pīpaipsūyu'' "I (<small>HUMB</small>) have to be bad (lit. "take the bad manner of") and humbly ask to tell".</ref>. The polite optative ''nacce'' followed by ''garpirati paibu'' (lit. something like "I'm taken to behave badly") is a very common set phrase for making requests. | ||
The verb ''pṛdhake'' (''pardhē - pṛdhek - apṛdha'', respectful equivalent of ''muṣke'' "to ask") may be used with all verbs and virtually replaces the desiderative ''junya'', i.e. implies "to want to". Note that the desiderative ''junya'' of another auxiliary such as ''gāke'' (''hagās-'') or ''nacce'' (''nanākṣ-'') can still be used for virtually the same meaning - however, for some speakers, ''pṛdhake'' may imply a less strict desire. | The verb ''pṛdhake'' (''pardhē - pṛdhek - apṛdha'', respectful equivalent of ''muṣke'' "to ask") may be used with all verbs and virtually replaces the desiderative ''junya'', i.e. implies "to want to". Note that the desiderative ''junya'' of another auxiliary such as ''gāke'' (''hagās-'') or ''nacce'' (''nanākṣ-'') can still be used for virtually the same meaning - however, for some speakers, ''pṛdhake'' may imply a less strict desire. | ||
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* ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa'' | * ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa'' | ||
** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...''). | ** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...''). | ||
** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lau-'' | ** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lau-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''lāvu, lāvi, lāvē...''). | ||
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | * ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | ||
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...''). | ** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...''). | ||
** The optative stem is irregular ''målu-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''målū, målvi, målvē...''). | ** The optative stem is irregular ''målu-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''målū, målvi, målvē...''). | ||
** Also has the irregular | ** Also has the irregular stems ''mīmakṣ-'' for the desiderative and ''meliknā-'' for the potential junyai. | ||
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca'' | * ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca'' | ||
** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting. | ||
* ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša'' | * ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša'' | ||
** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting. | ||
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, | * ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, ellā'' | ||
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ||
** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junya. | ** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junya. | ||
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* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura'' | * ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura'' | ||
* ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura'' | * ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura'' | ||
Other various irregular verbs: | Other various irregular verbs: | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| jelli || nīres || reri || jalṣyari || | | jelli || nīres || reri || jalṣyari || nībin | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| jali || | | jali || nīrat || ri || jalṣya || nība | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st | ||
| gati || | | gati || jogu || jijālyu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu || jājlīyu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| gīs || | | gīs || jogi || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi || jājlīyi<br/>(or ''jājlī'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| gī || | | gī || jogē || jijālye || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē || jājlīyē | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ||
| gīndu || | | gīndu || jokṣme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelaisme || jījalūtsme || jājlīsme | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| gīndi || | | gīndi || jombin || jijālšabin || jājalšūbin || jelābin || jījalūmbin || jājlībin | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| gī || | | gī || jomba || jijālšaba || jājalšūba || jelāba || jījalūmba || jājlība | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ||
| gīnam || | | gīnam || jogata || jijālinta || jājalšūvinta || jelinta || jījalūdinta || jājlīnta | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| gīnes || | | gīnes || jokṣin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin || jājlīšin | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| gī || | | gī || jogāhai || jijālyāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai || jājlīyāhai | ||
|} | |} | ||
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* ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X (same meaning as the permissive ''junya''). | * ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X (same meaning as the permissive ''junya''). | ||
*: ''sū yæyake paṣṭemešu'' "I let you read" (cf. permissive ''sū īyæyūdute'') | *: ''sū yæyake paṣṭemešu'' "I let you read" (cf. permissive ''sū īyæyūdute'') | ||
* ''infinitive'' + ''tamišake'' (to look at): to think about doing X, to consider doing X | |||
*: ''kitom vaske tatemešu'' "I'm considering going home" | |||
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to many instances of ''mai-'' verbs). | * ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to many instances of ''mai-'' verbs). | ||
*: ''nanau yæyake mālchute'' "I keep reading that" (cf. ''nanau maiteyæyu'') | *: ''nanau yæyake mālchute'' "I keep reading that" (cf. ''nanau maiteyæyu'') | ||
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==Adverbs== | ==Adverbs== | ||
→ ''See also [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Avyay.C4.ABbh.C4.81va_.28.E1.B9.ADv.C4.81daradhausire_tadmaiva.29|Chlouvānem morphology § Avyayībhāva]] for more ways of forming adverbs.'' | |||
Verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-siṭ''' to a consonant-final stem (only '''-iṭ''' after ''-ṣṭ(h)-''), and adding that and lengthening the final vowel of a vowel-final stem. Thus: | Verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-siṭ''' to a consonant-final stem (only '''-iṭ''' after ''-ṣṭ(h)-''), and adding that and lengthening the final vowel of a vowel-final stem. Thus: | ||
* ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlaussiṭ'' (scientifically, according to science) | * ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlaussiṭ'' (scientifically, according to science) | ||
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* ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better)) | * ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better)) | ||
* ''taili'' - many, much | * ''taili'' - many, much | ||
* '' | * ''širē'' - more | ||
* ''kaili'' - most | * ''kaili'' - most | ||
* ''ṣūbha'' - few, little' | * ''ṣūbha'' - few, little' | ||
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==Comparatives and superlatives== | ==Comparatives and superlatives== | ||
Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either ''' | Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either '''širē''' (more) or '''ovat''' (less) in front of the adjective; the compared term is in ablative case; the superlative is formed by using '''yaivų''' (than all) as the compared term. | ||
Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → '' | Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → ''širē chlære'' → ''yaivų širē chlære''), but "than all" in superlatives is usually omitted, therefore they use ''širē'' also with a superlative meaning. | ||
This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu | This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu širē yæyute'' "I read more than you". | ||
Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day. | Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day. | ||
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| ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best) | | ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || '' | | ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || ''širē'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (more) || ''kaili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (most) | ||
|} | |} | ||