Daùnare: Difference between revisions

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====Labialised vowels====
====Labialised vowels====
ʊ̯ɛ ʊ̯a ʊ̯e ʊ̯i
Any non-back vowel can be labialised, i.e. the following labialised vowels exist: /ʊ̯ɛ ʊ̯a ʊ̯e ʊ̯i/. Iotation is orthographically represented through diacritics – specifically, the breve.
 
The use of ⟨ʊ̯⟩ to represent the onset of these vowels (or diphthongs) phonetically is by convention, as there nominally exists no independent **/w/ phoneme, but the realisation is functionally [w].
 
In the standard language, these vowels are pronounced as such, but in many dialects, one of two things has happened:
# labialisation of the preceding consonant, or
# monophthongisation and compensatory lengthening to [œː ɔː øː yː]
 
For more information, see [[#Sociolinguistics|→Sociolinguistics]].
 
====Vowel reduction====
====Vowel reduction====
In unstressed syllables, short monophthongs:
In unstressed syllables, short monophthongs reduce as follows:


* /e, i/ → [ɪ]
* /e, i/ → [ɪ]
* /o, u/ → [ʊ]
* /o, u/ → [ʊ]
* /a, ɛ/ → [ʌ]
* /a, ɛ/ → [ʌ]
Diphthongs cannot reduce, and must therefore always be stressed.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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===Morphophonology of verbs===
===Morphophonology of verbs===
====Voice apophony====
====Voice apophony====
Voice is indicated through apophony (gradation) of the ''theme vowel'', which refers to the nucleus of the verb root's stressed syllable. Grade 1 forms the antipassive, and grade 2 the middle voice.
Voice is indicated through apophony (gradation) of the ''theme vowel'' of a verb (also referred to as grade 0), which refers to the nucleus of the verb root's stressed syllable. Grade 1 forms the antipassive, and grade 2 the middle voice.


These theme vowels also correlate with the ''class'' of the verb, which indicates the vowel used in person-number-tense/aspect declension. Because the gradation by theme vowel is unique in each class (i.e. no theme vowel has grades which also occur as theme vowels within the same class), and the class vowel appears in declensional endings, base verbs are generally not ambiguous with gradations of other verbs except in the infinitive (i.e. the verb root on its own).
These theme vowels also correlate with the ''class'' of the verb, which indicates the vowel used in person-number-tense/aspect conjugation ([[#Thematic anaptyxis|→Thematic anaptyxis]]). Because the gradation by theme vowel is unique in each class (i.e. no theme vowel has grades which also occur as theme vowels within the same class), and the class vowel appears in conjugational endings, base verbs are generally not ambiguous with gradations of other verbs except in the infinitive (i.e. the verb root on its own).


Below is a breakdown of gradations sorted according to class vowel and theme vowel:
Below is a breakdown of gradations sorted according to class vowel and theme vowel:
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====Thematic anaptyxis====
====Thematic anaptyxis====
===Morphophonology of nouns===
===Morphophonology of nouns===
====Class-dependent anaptyxis====
====Class-dependent anaptyxis====
====Methelcystic ''t'' and the definite clitic====
====Methelcystic ''t'' and the definite clitic====
====Initial consonant mutations after modal particles====
====Initial consonant mutations after modal particles====
==Derivational morphology==
Derivations are achieved in Daùnare either through one of three methods:
* '''Compounding''' – combining two lemmas to create a new lemma
* '''Class derivation''' – forming new nouns by altering the class of an existing noun
* '''Affixation''' – adding a bound morpheme to a lemma to create a new lemma. This latter can be further subdivided into:
** '''Ciscategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category stays the same (e.g. deriving a new adjective from an existing adjective)
** '''Transcategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category changes (e.g. deriving a noun from a verb)
===Derivational noun class===
===Noun compounding===
===Affix derivation of nouns===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of verbs===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of adjectives (and adverbs)===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====


==Inflectional morphology==
==Inflectional morphology==
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|}
|}


'''Definiteness''' is expressed using the definite clitic, for which see above ([[#Methelcystic t and the definite clitic|→Morphophonology of nouns § Methelcystic t and the definite clitic]]).
'''Definiteness''' is expressed using the definite clitic, or (for detached possessed nouns) the construct clitic, for both of which see below ([[#Definite and construct clitics|→Particles and clitics § Definite and construct clitics]]).
 
==== Converbal agreement ====
: ''See also: [[#Converb and pro-verb|→Verbs § Converb and pro-verb]] and [[#Constituent order|→Syntax § Constituent order]]''
 
Because of the focus-theme-rheme word order of Daùnare, nouns express agreement with the converb using the suffix ⟨-pe⟩. For example:
 
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 | Focus
! colspan=2 | Theme
! colspan=3 | Rheme
|-
| Muȧrnem'''pe'''
| kas
| (san)
| dal'''peset'''
| tālosnem
| kasnar
| dalabo.
|-
| muȧr=n=em‑'''pe'''
| kas
| (san)
| dal‑'''pes‑e‑t'''
| tālos=n=em
| kas‑nar
| dal‑a‑bo
|-
| house‑{{sc|def}}‑{{sc|conc}}.{{sc|dat}}‑'''{{sc|cvb}}'''
| to
| ({{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|m}}.{{sc|abs}})
| go‑'''{{sc|cvb}}‑∅‑{{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|pres}}'''
| shop‑{{sc|def}}‑{{sc|dat}}
| to‑inside
| go‑∅‑{{sc|1sg}}.{{sc|pret}}
|-
| colspan="2" | ''House '''while''' to''
| colspan="2" | ''he goes '''while'''''
| colspan="3" | ''shop into I went.''
|-
| colspan="2" | ‘While it was the house
| colspan="2" | he was going to,
| colspan="3" | I went into the shop.’
|}
 
Contrasting with:
 
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 | Focus
! colspan=4 | Theme
! colspan=1 | Rheme
|-
| Muȧrnem
| kas
| (san)
| dal'''peset'''
| tālosnem'''pe'''
| kasnar
| dalabo.
|-
| muȧr=n=em
| kas
| (san)
| dal‑'''pes‑e‑t'''
| tālos=n=em‑'''pe'''
| kas‑nar
| dal‑a‑bo
|-
| house‑{{sc|def}}‑{{sc|conc}}.{{sc|dat}}
| to
| ({{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|m}}.{{sc|abs}})
| go‑'''{{sc|cvb}}‑∅‑{{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|pres}}'''
| shop‑{{sc|def}}‑{{sc|dat}}‑'''{{sc|cvb}}'''
| to‑inside
| go‑∅‑{{sc|1sg}}.{{sc|pret}}
|-
| colspan="2" | ''House to''
| colspan="4" | ''he goes '''while''' shop '''while''' into''
| colspan="1" | ''I went.''
|-
| colspan="2" | ‘It was the house—
| colspan="4" | while he was going into the shop
| colspan="1" | —that I went to.’
|}


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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| sar
| sar
| sari
| sari
| sā
| rowspan=2 | sā
| siri
| siri
| siris
| siris
| sī
| rowspan=2 | sī
| ter
| ter
| teri
| teri
| tē
| rowspan=2 | tē
| tru
| tru
| tū
| rowspan=2 | tū
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
! {{sc|abl}}
! {{sc|abl}}
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| sal
| sal
| saıl
| saıl
| sā
| sli
| sli
| slis
| slis
| sī
| tel
| tel
| teıl
| teıl
| tē
| tulu
| tulu
| tū
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
! {{sc|voc}}
! {{sc|voc}}
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|}
|}


Possessive pronouns decline the same way, except that there are no vocative possessive pronouns (in any person).
==== Possessive pronouns ====
 
Possessive pronouns indicate inalienable possession and can occur either on their own, or in conjunction with a possessed noun, which must be definite. By default, they are placed after the noun they possess, but they can become detached from it for semantic reasons ([[#Constituent order|→Syntax § Constituent order]]). In this case, the definite clitic in the possessed noun is replaced with the construct clitic ([[#Definite and construct clitics|→Definite and construct clitics]]).
 
Possessive pronouns decline the same way as personal pronouns, except that there are no vocative possessive pronouns (in any person):


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; border-top: none; border-left: none; background-color:transparent;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; border-top: none; border-left: none; background-color:transparent;"
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===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Verbs conjugate by apophony to express voice, and by suffixation to express tense-aspect. Verbs do not conjugate for mood, which is instead expressed through modal particles.
====Tense and aspect====
====Tense and aspect====
The "default" (unmarked) aspect of the present and future tenses is the gnomic or simple aspect (by convention, the nomenclature is ''gnomic present'' but ''future simple''). A progressive aspect can be expressed through the regular suffix ⟨‑ta⟩ affixed to the base declension of both tenses, and a perfect aspect only in the future tense through the suffixes ⟨‑bi⟩ (first person), ⟨‑si⟩ (second person) and ⟨‑ni⟩ (third person).
The "default" (unmarked) aspect of the present and future tenses is the gnomic or simple aspect (by convention, the nomenclature is ''gnomic present'' but ''future simple''). A progressive aspect can be expressed through the regular suffix ⟨‑ta⟩ affixed to the base conjugation of both tenses, and a perfect aspect only in the future tense through the suffixes ⟨‑bi⟩ (first person), ⟨‑si⟩ (second person) and ⟨‑ni⟩ (third person).


The past tense, by contrast, has no unmarked aspect; each past aspect (''preterite'' or simple past, ''imperfect'' or progressive past, and ''habitual [past]'') has its own set of person‑number inflections.
The past tense, by contrast, has no unmarked aspect; each past aspect (''preterite'' or simple past, ''imperfect'' or progressive past, and ''habitual [past]'') has its own set of person‑number inflections.


Below is an inflection table, where V represents the thematic vowel of the verb ([[#Thematic anaptyxis|→Morphophonology of verbs § Thematic anaptyxis]]). The progressive and perfect aspects for the future and present are not shown, as they are perfectly regular, with the exception that the present progressive third person singular/collective (or second person singular formal) has another theme vowel inserted between the declensional suffix and the progressive suffix to prevent the two /t/s colliding, which is the only instance of ''double thematic anaptyxis''.
Below is an inflection table, where V represents the thematic vowel of the verb ([[#Thematic anaptyxis|→Morphophonology of verbs § Thematic anaptyxis]]). The progressive and perfect aspects for the future and present tenses are not shown, as they are perfectly regular, with the exception that the present progressive third person singular/collective (or second person singular formal) has another theme vowel inserted between the conjugational suffix and the progressive suffix to prevent the two /t/s colliding, which is the only instance of ''double thematic anaptyxis''.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:middle;"
|+ Inflection table
|+ Conjugation table
|- style="text-align:center;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="3" |  
! rowspan="3" |  
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The default/unmarked mood is the positive declarative indicative; other moods are expressed through modal particles, for which see below ([[#Modal particles|→Particles § Modal particles]])
The default/unmarked mood is the positive declarative indicative; other moods are expressed through modal particles, for which see below ([[#Modal particles|→Particles § Modal particles]])
==== Voice ====
: ''See also: [[#Voice apophony|→Morphophonology of verbs § Voice apophony]]''
Daùnare has three "primary" voices, which are indicated through apophony on verbs. As an ergative-absolutive language, Daùnare does not feature an active voice but rather a '''primary''' voice, in which the argument of an intransitive verb is equivalent to the patient of a transitive verb; i.e., in ambitransitive verbs, the intransitive use in the primary voice will omit the agent (like the passive voice of a nominative-accusative language), not the patient.
To omit the patient instead (like one in the active voice of a nominative-accusative language), the '''antipassive''' voice can be used, called such because it effectively achieves the reverse of what a passive voice achieves in a nominative-accusative language. Some verbs do not have an antipassive form; these are termed ''defective'' verbs. Conversely, some verbs only have an antipassive form, and these verbs are termed ''deponent'' verbs.
The '''middle voice''', with the exception of a few specific verbs, only normally occurs intransitively. It generally indicates reciprocity, reflexivity, or volition.
Besides these "primary" voices, there exist two prefixes, the '''applicative''' ⟨do-⟩, which promotes the dative object of a verb to be its patient, and the '''diapplicative''' ⟨ro-⟩, which does the same thing with the ablative object. The prefixes can combine with either the primary stem to create the applicative and diapplicative voices, or with the middle stem to create the '''medioapplicative''' and '''mediodiapplicative'''. However, it is worth noting that many verbs lack some or all of these forms, which is why these latter four voices are not regarded as "primary".
Nonetheless, in total, Daùnare can therefore be said to feature seven voices.
==== Converb and pro-verb ====
: ''See also: [[#Converbal agreement|Nouns § Converbal agreement]]
The converb and pro-verb ⟨pes⟩ fulfills the function of a converb when suffixed to another verb root, and that of a pro-verb (akin to English "do" or "do so") when used independently.
The tense-aspect declensions of the converb indicate its function, and as such do not need to agree with the main clause verb. The converb conjugates for all tense-aspects except the habitual (though the pro-verb does), as follows:
* '''Present''' – simultaneous converb ("while doing")
* '''Preterite''' – perfective converb ("after doing")
* '''Imperfect''' – causal converb ("because of doing")
* '''Future''' – anticipatory converb ("before doing")
For example:
<span style="color:#ff0000;">Add examples!</span>


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
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===Conjunctions===
===Conjunctions===
===Determiners===
===Determiners===
===Particles===
===Particles and clitics===
====Modal particles====
====Modal particles====
Modal particles, placed at the beginning of clauses, express grammatical mood. For an overview of mood, please see ([[#Mood|&rarr;Verbs § Mood]])
Modal particles, placed at the beginning of clauses (except copular clauses, in which they fuse with the copula), express grammatical mood. For an overview of mood, please see ([[#Mood|&rarr;Verbs § Mood]])
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
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| mum
| mum
| maùd
| maùd
| um ki
| unki
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
! Negative
! Negative
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| nemum
| nemum
| numda
| numda
| num ki
| nunki
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Relative
! rowspan=2 | Relative
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| smu
| smu
| sta
| sta
| sa ki
| saki
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
! Negative
! Negative
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| nesmu
| nesmu
| nesta
| nesta
| nes ki
| nesti
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subordinate
! rowspan=2 | Subordinate
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| gem
| gem
| ged
| ged
| ge ki
| geti
|-
|-
! Negative
! Negative
| neg
| neg
| neg lo
| neglo
| negem
| negem
| neged
| neged
| ne ki
| neki
|}
|}
====Definite and construct clitics====
:''See also: [[#Methelcystic t and the definite clitic|&rarr;Morphophonology of nouns § Methelcystic t and the definite clitic]]''
The definite clitic =n= is a mesoclitic inserted between a nominal root and its declensional suffix. Where a noun is possessed but detached from its possessor, the construct clitic =r= is used instead.
==Derivational morphology==
Derivations are achieved in Daùnare either through one of three methods:
* '''Compounding''' &ndash; combining two lemmas to create a new lemma
* '''Class derivation''' &ndash; forming new nouns by altering the class of an existing noun
* '''Affixation''' &ndash; adding a bound morpheme to a lemma to create a new lemma. This latter can be further subdivided into:
** '''Ciscategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category stays the same (e.g. deriving a new adjective from an existing adjective)
** '''Transcategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category changes (e.g. deriving a noun from a verb)
===Derivational noun class===
===Noun compounding===
===Affix derivation of nouns===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of verbs===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of adjectives (and adverbs)===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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