Daùnare

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Introduction

Phonology

Vowels

Diphthongs

Iotified vowels

Labialised vowels

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Orthography

Morphophonology

Morphophonology of verbs

Voice apophony

Theme vowel Grade 0
Grade 1
anti
Grade 2
mid
a a e o
ā ē ō
ū
ą ę ǫ
ă ĕ
æ o a
ǣ ō ā
o o e u
ō ē ū
ǫ ę ų
e e u a
ē ū ā
ō
ǫ
ĕ ă
ę ų ą
u u i e
ū ī ē
ĭ
ų ę
i i a u
ī ā ū
ą
ų
ĭ ă

Thematic anaptyxis

Morphophonology of nouns

Class-dependent anaptyxis

Methelcystic t and the definite clitic

Derivational morphology

Derivational noun class

Noun compounding

Affix derivation of nouns

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Affix derivation of verbs

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Affix derivation of adjectives (and adverbs)

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Inflectional morphology

Nouns

Verbs

Aspect

The "default" (unmarked) aspect of the present and future tenses is the gnomic or simple aspect (by convention, the nomenclature is gnomic present but future simple). A progressive aspect can be expressed through the regular suffix ⟨-ta⟩ affixed to the base declension of both tenses, and a perfect aspect only in the future tense through the suffixes ⟨-bi⟩ (first person), ⟨-si⟩ (second person) and ⟨-ni⟩ (third person).

The past tense, by contrast, has no unmarked aspect; each past aspect (preterite or simple past, imperfect or progressive past, and habitual [past]) has its own set of person-number inflections.

Below is an inflection table, where V represents the thematic vowel of the verb (→thematic anaptyxis). The progressive and perfect aspects for the future and present are not shown, as they are perfectly regular, with the exception that the present progressive third person singular/collective (or second person singular formal) has another theme vowel inserted between the declensional suffix and the progressive suffix to prevent the two /t/s colliding, which is the only instance of double thematic anaptyxis.

Inflection table
1sg
1dl 1pl 2sg.infor 2dl.infor 2pl.infor 3sg/3col/
2sg.for
3dl/
2dl.for
3pl/3sgv/
2pl.for
present -Vg -Vm -Vn -Vs -Vsi -Vsin -Vt -Vti -Vri
preterite -Vbo -Vbim -Vbin -Vtas -Vtis -Vtin -Vsat -Vsti -Vsri
imperfect -Vbota -Vbita -Vbitan -Vtasta -Vtista -Vtinta -Vtasat -Vtasti -Vtasri
habitual -Vbotag -Vbitam -Vtabin -Vtastas -Vtistas -Vtintan -Vsata -Vstita -Vtasir
future -Vgi -Vmi -Vni -Vsti -Vstir -Vstin -Vti -Vtir -Vnir

Adjectives and adverbs

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Semantics

The verb tug

The Daùnare verb ⟨tug⟩ nominally means "to bring", but is capable of expressing a whole host of things for which English uses different verbs.

Intransitive

When used intransitively in primary voice, it can be used with non-sentient/non-volitional arguments to mean "there is":

S V
Harnu tugut.
har-nu tug-u-t
way-abst.sg.abs bring-∅-prs.3sg
A way is brought.
‘There is a way.’

The same meaning ("there is") can be expressed with the middle voice for sentient/volitional arguments:

S V
Distan tegut.
dis-t-an teg-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.abs mid\bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings (himself).
‘There is a man.’

Of course, this also works in conjunction with other tenses and aspects (for, e.g., "There used to be a man", "There will have been a way") – with the exception of the progressive aspect (which exists in the present and future tense).

(Mono)transitive

In (mono)transitive usage in the primary voice, the verb usually does translate as "bring":

A P V
Distas kunen tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog.
‘A man brings a dog.’

A peculiarity of this verb is that it is possible to use the middle voice form of the verb transitively, i.e. with an ergative argument (which middle voice verbs usually do not take) functioning as recipient:

A P V
Distas kunen tegut.
dis-t-as kun-en teg-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs mid\bring-∅-prs.3sg
(To) a man a dog brings (itself).
‘A man gets a dog.’

Ditransitive

In ditransitive usage the verb can either be translated as "give" or "take" depending on whether the indirect object is dative or ablative:

A P I(DAT) V
Distas kunen disnimi tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en dis=n=i-mi tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs person=def=∅-fem.sg.dat bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog to the woman.
‘A man gives the woman a dog.’
A P I(ABL) V
Distas kunen plastel tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en plas-t-el tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs child-∅-conc.sg.abl bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog from a child.
‘A man takes a child's dog.’ / ‘A man takes a dog from a child.’

Tritransitive

Both indirect objects can be present to express the idea of giving A to B having taken it from C:

A P I(DAT) I(ABL) V
Distas kunen disnimi plastel tugut.
dis-t-as kun-en dis=n=i-mi plas-t-el tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg dog-conc.sg.abs person=def=∅-fem.sg.dat child-∅-conc.sg.abl bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man brings a dog to the woman from a child.
‘A man gives the woman a child's dog.’ / ‘A man gives the woman a dog taken from a child.’

Applicative

When used as a di- or tritransitive, the verb can be modified using the applicative prefix ⟨do-⟩ which promotes the dative to patient (and the secondary indirect object to primary). Unlike some verbs, the applicative prefix cannot be combined with the middle voice stem to produce a medioapplicative.

A P V
Distas disnini tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni do-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs appl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "bebrings" the woman.
‘A man gives [something] to the woman.’
A P I(DAT) V
Distas disnini plastem tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni plas-t-em do-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs child-∅-conc.sg.dat appl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "bebrings" the woman through the child.
‘A man gives [something] to the woman [taken] from the child.’

Diapplicative

As is the case with other tritransitive verbs, the diapplicative prefix ⟨ro-⟩ can be used to promote the secondary indirect object to patient instead. Relatively unusually, ⟨tug⟩ does not function as an intransitive verb with the applicative (or diapplicative). Like with the applicative, the diapplicative prefix cannot be combined with the middle stem to produce a mediodiapplicative.

A P V
Distas disnini tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni ro-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs diappl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "disbrings" the woman.
‘A man takes [something] from the woman.’
A P I(DAT) V
Distas disnini plastem tugut.
dis-t-as dis=n=i-ni plas-t-em ro-tug-u-t
person-∅-masc.sg.erg person=def=∅-fem.sg.abs child-∅-conc.sg.dat diappl-bring-∅-prs.3sg
A man "disbrings" the woman through the child.
‘A man takes [something] from the woman [and gives it] to the child.’

Example texts

Other resources