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Eska is a conlang based on Case Grammar; more specifically, it is based on Extended Case Grammar which is my particular view of Case Grammar.  Extended Case Grammar follows the Matrix Model applied by Walter Cook with a few exceptions.  In Cook's Matrix Model there are four mutually exclusive cases: Experiencer, Benefactor, Location, and Time.  To this list I add Range.  It must be noted here that both the Matrix Model and Extended Case Grammar use semantic case rather than syntactic case.  I know of no natural language that marks semantic case.
Eska is a conlang based on Case Grammar; more specifically, it is based on Extended Case Grammar which is my particular view of Case Grammar.  Extended Case Grammar follows the Matrix Model applied by Walter Cook with a few exceptions.  In Cook's Matrix Model there are four mutually exclusive cases: Experiencer, Benefactor, Location, and Time.  To this list I add Range.  It must be noted here that both the Matrix Model and Extended Case Grammar use semantic case rather than syntactic case.  I know of no natural language that marks semantic case.


In the Matrix Model and in Extended Case Grammar predicates each belong to a particular domain.  Predicates are divided into a number of domains.  A predicate that only uses Object and possibly Agent cases is said to be in the Basic Domain.  A predicate requiring the Experiencer case is said to be in the Experiential Domain.  A predicate requiring the Benefactor case is said to be in the Benefactive Domain.  A predicate requiring the Location case is said to be in the Locative Domain.  A predicate requiring the Time case is said to be in the Temporal Domain.  And a predicate requiring the Range case is said to be in the Range Domain. (The Range Domain is not used in the Matrix Model, because Cook examines a single novel for his input.  Extended Case Grammar uses dictionaries for their input, which yielded the Range Domain as well as all of the other domains.)
In the Matrix Model and in Extended Case Grammar predicates each belong to a particular domain.  Predicates are divided into a number of domains.  A predicate that only uses Object and possibly Agent cases is said to be in the Basic Domain.  A predicate requiring the Experiencer case is said to be in the Experiential Domain.  A predicate requiring the Benefactor case is said to be in the Benefactive Domain.  A predicate requiring the Location case is said to be in the Locative Domain.  A predicate requiring the Time case is said to be in the Temporal Domain.  A predicate requiring the Range case is said to be in the Range Domain.  And a predicate requiring the Comparison case is said to be in the Comparative Domain. (The Range and Comparative Domains are not used in the Matrix Model, because Cook examines a single novel for his input.  Extended Case Grammar uses dictionaries for their input, which yielded the Range Domain as well as all of the other domains.)


Predicates are also divided into three classes:  State verbs, Inchoative verbs, and Causative verbs.  (The Matrix Model calls these:  State verbs, Process verbs, and Action Verbs, respectively.)  State verbs denote an unchanging state or condition.  Examples are: be good, be tall, be old, be happy, be hungry, be sad, see, hear, have, lack, be at, be inside, be outside, be ready to walk, be on (day), weigh, and measure.  Inchoative verbs include:  get better, get taller,  become happier, get hungrier, become sadder, spy, start to hear, get, lose, arrive, enter, exit, walk, last (for time), allocate, and appropriate.  Causative verbs include:  make good, make tall, make old, make hungry, make sad, show, make hear, give, discard, take away, bring, insert, remove, walk (a dog), spend (time), add, and subtract.  State verbs are taken to be the basic form of verbs with the Inchoative and Causative verbs being derived from State verbs.  An Inchoative verb is derived from a State verb by adding the inchoative notion of becoming or changing.  A Causative verb is derived from an Inchoative verb by adding the notion of causation.  A simple example would be the verbs be hungry, become hungry, and make hungry.  '''Be hungry''' is a state verb; it denotes an unchanging state.  '''Become hungry''' is derived from '''be hungry''' by adding the notion of becoming; therefore, '''become hungry''' is an Inchoative verb.  '''Make hungry''' is derived from become by adding the notion of causing; therefore, '''make hungry''' is a Causative verb.
Predicates are also divided into three classes:  State verbs, Inchoative verbs, and Causative verbs.  (The Matrix Model calls these:  State verbs, Process verbs, and Action Verbs, respectively.)  State verbs denote an unchanging state or condition.  Examples are: be good, be tall, be old, be happy, be hungry, be sad, see, hear, have, lack, be at, be inside, be outside, be ready to walk, be on (day), weigh, and measure.  Inchoative verbs include:  get better, get taller,  become happier, get hungrier, become sadder, spy, start to hear, get, lose, arrive, enter, exit, walk, last (for time), allocate, and appropriate.  Causative verbs include:  make good, make tall, make old, make hungry, make sad, show, make hear, give, discard, take away, bring, insert, remove, walk (a dog), spend (time), add, and subtract.  State verbs are taken to be the basic form of verbs with the Inchoative and Causative verbs being derived from State verbs.  An Inchoative verb is derived from a State verb by adding the inchoative notion of becoming or changing.  A Causative verb is derived from an Inchoative verb by adding the notion of causation.  A simple example would be the verbs be hungry, become hungry, and make hungry.  '''Be hungry''' is a State verb; it denotes an unchanging state.  '''Become hungry''' is derived from '''be hungry''' by adding the notion of becoming; therefore, '''become hungry''' is an Inchoative verb.  '''Make hungry''' is derived from become by adding the notion of causing; therefore, '''make hungry''' is a Causative verb.


In the Matrix Model, Walter Cook designates '''be''' as a verb in its own right.  I disagree with him.  I view '''be''' as a predicative particle that attaches to syntactic nouns and adjectives to yield State verbs.  In Eska state predicates include '''be + complement'''. '''Become''' and '''make''' are similar to '''be''' in that they include their complements also.
In the Matrix Model, Walter Cook designates '''be''' as a verb in its own right.  I disagree with him.  I view '''be''' as a predicative particle that attaches to syntactic nouns and adjectives to yield State verbs.  In Eska state predicates include '''be + complement'''. '''Become + compliment''' yields an Inchoative verb. '''Make + compliment''' yields a Causative verb.


Two other important differences will be noted here:  the Matrix Model allows two occurrences of the Object case within the same clause.  In Eska using Extended Case Grammar, I disallow this; I reinterpret these clauses as having an Object case and a Benefactive case.  The Matrix Model only allows a clause to be embedded under the Object case.  Extended Case Grammar and Eska in particular allow clauses to be embedded under any case.  Embedding a clause under the Agent case has the effect of a '''because''' clause.
Two other important differences will be noted here:  the Matrix Model allows two occurrences of the Object case within the same clause.  In Eska using Extended Case Grammar, I disallow this; I reinterpret these clauses as having an Object case and a Benefactive case.  The Matrix Model only allows a clause to be embedded under the Object case.  Extended Case Grammar and Eska in particular allow clauses to be embedded under any case.  Embedding a clause under the Agent case has the effect of a '''because''' clause.


'''Extended Case Grammar'''
'''Extended Case Grammar'''
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Many systems of Case Grammar have been proposed; each of them having particular strengths and weaknesses.  Extended Case Grammar begins with the Matrix Model and extends it into a full grammar.  (See above section for the differences between the two.)
Many systems of Case Grammar have been proposed; each of them having particular strengths and weaknesses.  Extended Case Grammar begins with the Matrix Model and extends it into a full grammar.  (See above section for the differences between the two.)


'''Propositional Cases'''
'''Propositional Cases'''


Each predicate requires a number of cases.  The number of cases required by a particular predicate is called the predicates valency.  Predicates may require one, two, or three cases.  Valency is directly related to the meaning of the predicate.
Each predicate requires a number of cases.  The number of cases required by a particular predicate is called the predicates valency.  Predicates may require one, two, or three cases.  Valency is directly related to the meaning of the predicate.


''Object Case''
''Object Case''
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examples:
examples:
The '''book''' is red.
The '''book''' is red.
The '''sky''' is blue.
The '''sky''' is blue.
The '''man''' is tall.
The '''man''' is tall.
The man sees a '''woman'''.
The man sees a '''woman'''.
The dog chased a '''cat'''.
The dog chased a '''cat'''.
The woman has a '''car'''.
The woman has a '''car'''.
The woman bought a '''dress'''.
The woman bought a '''dress'''.
The '''man''' is at home.
The '''man''' is at home.
The '''meeting''' is on Monday.
The '''meeting''' is on Monday.
The '''dog''' weighs 70 pounds.
The '''dog''' weighs 70 pounds.


''Agent Case''
''Agent Case''
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The '''man''' painted the house red.
The '''man''' painted the house red.
The '''woman''' bought a dress from the boutique.
The '''woman''' bought a dress from the boutique.
The '''man''' gave the woman a gift.
The '''man''' gave the woman a gift.
The '''man''' showed the woman a trick.
The '''man''' showed the woman a trick.
The '''dog''' chased the cat.
The '''dog''' chased the cat.
The '''man''' brought food home.
The '''man''' brought food home.
The '''man''' talked to the woman.
The '''man''' talked to the woman.


''Experiencer Case''
''Experiencer Case''
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The '''woman''' sees a bird.
The '''woman''' sees a bird.
The '''woman''' spied a bird.  
The '''woman''' spied a bird.  
The man showed the '''woman''' a trick.
The man showed the '''woman''' a trick.
The '''man''' hears the woman.
The '''man''' hears the woman.
The '''child''' wants to play.
The '''child''' wants to play.
The '''child''' is sad.  (The '''child''' feels sadness.)
The '''child''' is sad.  (The '''child''' feels sadness.)
The '''child''' is hungry.  (The '''child''' feels hunger.)
The '''child''' is hungry.  (The '''child''' feels hunger.)
The man talks to the '''woman'''.
The man talks to the '''woman'''.
The '''woman''' listens to music.
The '''woman''' listens to music.
The '''woman''' knows Spanish.
The '''woman''' knows Spanish.
The '''man''' thinks about rock climbing.
The '''man''' thinks about rock climbing.


''Benefactor Case''
''Benefactor Case''
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The '''man''' has a book.
The '''man''' has a book.
The woman bought a dress from the '''boutique'''.
The woman bought a dress from the '''boutique'''.
The '''man''' got a letter.
The '''man''' got a letter.
The woman sold a car to the '''man'''.
The woman sold a car to the '''man'''.
The '''woman''' owns a house.
The '''woman''' owns a house.
The '''man''' lacks a wife.
The '''man''' lacks a wife.
The '''woman''' lost an earring.
The '''woman''' lost an earring.
The thief stole money from the '''bank'''.
The thief stole money from the '''bank'''.


''Location Case''
''Location Case''
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The man is '''at home'''.
The man is '''at home'''.
The woman is '''inside'''.
The woman is '''inside'''.
The dog is '''outside'''.
The dog is '''outside'''.
The man enters the '''house'''.
The man enters the '''house'''.
The woman exits the '''house'''.
The woman exits the '''house'''.
The cat climbs the '''drapes'''.
The cat climbs the '''drapes'''.
The child walks the dog '''to the park'''.
The child walks the dog '''to the park'''.


''Time Case''
''Time Case''
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The meeting lasts for an '''hour'''.
The meeting lasts for an '''hour'''.
The man spends the '''day''' with the woman.
The man spends the '''day''' with the woman.


''Range Case''
''Range Case''
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The dog weighs '''70 pounds'''.
The dog weighs '''70 pounds'''.
The book cost '''$10'''.
The book cost '''$10'''.
The man bid '''$100'''.
The man bid '''$100'''.
''Comparison Case''
The Comparison case is required by Comparative verbs.  Comparison is used by verbs such as:  '''compare''', '''contrast''', '''be the same''', '''be different''', '''be more''', and '''be less'''.
examples:
The man compares the '''apples''' to each other.
The woman contrasts the '''lemons''' with the limes.
The '''book''' is more than 400 pages.
The '''toy''' is less than the candy.


''State Verbs''
''State Verbs''
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The man '''is tall'''.
The man '''is tall'''.
The woman '''is beautiful'''.
The woman '''is beautiful'''.
The man '''is old'''.
The man '''is old'''.
The woman '''is happy'''.
The woman '''is happy'''.
The man '''has''' a book.
The man '''has''' a book.
The woman '''lacks''' a husband.
The woman '''lacks''' a husband.
The man '''sees''' a woman.
The man '''sees''' a woman.
The woman '''hears''' a bird.
The woman '''hears''' a bird.
The man '''smells''' coffee.
The man '''smells''' coffee.
The woman '''tastes''' the donut.
The woman '''tastes''' the donut.
The man '''is at''' home.
The man '''is at''' home.
The child '''is in''' bed.
The child '''is in''' bed.
The dog '''is outside'''.
The dog '''is outside'''.
The meeting '''is on''' Wednesday.
The meeting '''is on''' Wednesday.
The dog '''weighs''' 70 pounds.
The dog '''weighs''' 70 pounds.


''Inchoative Verbs''
''Inchoative Verbs''
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The man '''becomes''' old.
The man '''becomes''' old.
The woman '''gets happier'''.
The woman '''gets happier'''.
The man '''gets''' a book.
The man '''gets''' a book.
The woman '''loses''' her husband.
The woman '''loses''' her husband.
The man '''spied''' a woman.
The man '''spied''' a woman.
The woman '''began to hear''' a bird.
The woman '''began to hear''' a bird.
The man '''begins to smell''' the coffee.
The man '''begins to smell''' the coffee.
The woman '''begins to taste''' the donut.
The woman '''begins to taste''' the donut.
The man '''arrives''' home.
The man '''arrives''' home.
The child '''goes''' to bed,
 
The meeting '''lasted''' an hour,
The child '''goes''' to bed.
 
The meeting '''lasted''' an hour.
 
The woman '''allocates''' a place for the book.
The woman '''allocates''' a place for the book.


''Causative Verbs''
''Causative Verbs''
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Family '''makes''' the woman '''happier'''.
Family '''makes''' the woman '''happier'''.
The woman '''gives''' the man a book.
The woman '''gives''' the man a book.
The man '''buys''' a book.
The man '''buys''' a book.
The woman '''divorces''' her husband.
The woman '''divorces''' her husband.
The man '''showed''' the woman a trick.
The man '''showed''' the woman a trick.
The woman '''listened''' to the bird.
The woman '''listened''' to the bird.
The man '''sold''' a car.
The man '''sold''' a car.
The woman '''spends''' an hour in the park.
The woman '''spends''' an hour in the park.


'''Overt Case Roles'''
'''Overt Case Roles'''
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The '''man''' saw a beautiful '''woman'''.
The '''man''' saw a beautiful '''woman'''.
The '''dog''' chased a '''cat'''.
The '''dog''' chased a '''cat'''.
The '''salesman''' sold a '''car'''.
The '''salesman''' sold a '''car'''.
The '''child''' bought '''candy'''.
The '''child''' bought '''candy'''.
The '''man''' showed the '''woman''' a '''trick'''.
The '''man''' showed the '''woman''' a '''trick'''.
The '''woman''' spends an '''hour''' in the '''park'''.
The '''woman''' spends an '''hour''' in the '''park'''.


'''Covert Case Roles'''
'''Covert Case Roles'''


Covert case roles "are sometimes or always absent from the surface structure. Covert roles may be partially covert or totally covert.  Partially covert roles are sometimes present and sometimes absent and are called deletable roles.  Totally covert roles are roles that are never present in the surface structure despite the fact that they are part of the verb's valence.  Totally covert roles include both coreferential roles and lexicalized roles" (Cook 1989:201).
Covert case roles "are sometimes or always absent from the surface structure. Covert roles may be partially covert or totally covert.  Partially covert roles are sometimes present and sometimes absent and are called deletable roles.  Totally covert roles are roles that are never present in the surface structure despite the fact that they are part of the verb's valence.  Totally covert roles include both coreferential roles and lexicalized roles" (Cook 1989:201).


''Deletable Case Roles''
''Deletable Case Roles''
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The woman is cooking ('''something''').
The woman is cooking ('''something''').
The man seems ('''to me''') to be sad.
The man seems ('''to me''') to be sad.
Susan told me ('''something''').
Susan told me ('''something''').
Susan said something ('''to me''').
Susan said something ('''to me''').
Nick sold the car ('''to somebody''').
Nick sold the car ('''to somebody''').
John filled the glass ('''with water''').
John filled the glass ('''with water''').
John poured milk ('''into the glass''').
John poured milk ('''into the glass''').
She told me ('''that she was sick''').
She told me ('''that she was sick''').


''Coreferential Case Roles''
''Coreferential Case Roles''
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'''John''' looked at the sunrise.
'''John''' looked at the sunrise.
John = Agent + one who sees  Agent = Experiencer
John = Agent + one who sees  Agent = Experiencer
'''George''' frightened the baby.
'''George''' frightened the baby.
George = Agent + cause of the fright  Agent = Object
George = Agent + cause of the fright  Agent = Object
The '''girls''' caught 5 fish.
The '''girls''' caught 5 fish.
Catch = acquire for self  Agent = Benefactor
Catch = acquire for self  Agent = Benefactor
'''Sue''' went to New York.
'''Sue''' went to New York.
Sue = Agent + moving object  Agent = Object
Sue = Agent + moving object  Agent = Object


''Lexicalized Case Roles''
''Lexicalized Case Roles''
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''consonants''
 
''Consonants''


p t k b d f v s z m n l r y w j as in English
p t k b d f v s z m n l r y w j as in English
g always hard
g always hard
c pronounce like ch
c pronounce like ch
x pronounce like sh
x pronounce like sh
h pronounce like th in '''th'''in
h pronounce like th in '''th'''in


''vowels''
 
 
''Vowels''


a e i o u as in Spanish
a e i o u as in Spanish
ay 
oy
au


Stress
 
''Diphthongs''
 
ay  l'''i'''ke  m'''y'''
 
oy  t'''oy'''  s'''oi'''l
 
au  '''ow'''  c'''ou'''ch
 
 
 
''Stress''


Penultimate stress when word ends in a vowel.
Penultimate stress when word ends in a vowel.
Final stress when word ends in a consonant.
Final stress when word ends in a consonant.




'''Nominals'''
'''Nominals'''


Nominals are marked for case in Eska.  Object case takes the suffix -a.
Nominals are marked for case in Eska.  Object case takes the suffix -a.  Dative case takes the suffix -i  Agent case takes the suffix -o.
 
 
 
''Object Case''
 
The Object case is marked by -a.  It is the most neutral case.  Please do not confuse the Object case with a direct object.  Eska does not recognize syntactic categories such as subject, direct object, and indirect object.


examples:
examples:


Sac iz vidine ip mani '''misa'''.  The man saw a woman.
Sac iz vidine ip mani '''misa'''.  The man saw a woman.
Sac iz vidise ip mani '''ava'''.  The man spied a bird.
Sac iz vidise ip mani '''ava'''.  The man spied a bird.
Sac iz baytine op mano '''kara'''.  The man bought a car.
 
Sac az imoxine mani hapa.  The man is happy.  (The man feels happiness.)
Sac iz baytile op mano '''kara'''.  The man bought a car.
 
Sac az imoxine mani '''hapa'''.  The man is happy.  (The man feels happiness.)
 
Sac az azine ip misi '''buka'''.  The woman has a book.
 
Sac az atine ap '''kida''' husi.  The child is at home.
 
Sac az wezine ap '''doga''' 70 pondi.  The dog weighs 70 pounds.
 
Sac az talane ap '''mana'''.  The man is tall.
 
 
 
''Agent Case''
 
The Agent case is marked by -o  It marks the agent responsible for the action of a Causative verb.
 
examples:
 
Sac iz vidine op '''mano''' ip misi ava.  The man showed the woman a bird.
 
Sac iz baytine op '''mano''' kara.  The man bought a car.
 
Sac iz azine op '''mano''' ip misi buka.  The man gave the woman a book.
 
Sac iz dedale op '''mano''' ap misa.  The man killed the woman.
 
Sac iz wakine op '''kido''' doga ip parki.  The child walked the dog at the park.
 
 
 
'''Dative Case'''
 
The Dative case is a hypercase of mutually exclusive cases including: Experiencer, Benefactor, Location, Time, and Range.  The Experiencer case occurs with the Experiential Domain.  The Benefactor case occurs with the Benefactive Domain. The Location case occurs with the Locative Domain.  The Time case occurs with the Temporal Domain.  And the Range case occurs with the Range Domain.
 
 
 
''Experiencer Case''
 
examples:
 
Sac iz vidine ip '''misi''' mana.  The woman saw a man.
 
Sac iz vidise ip '''misi''' mana.  The woman spied a man.
 
Sac iz hirine ip '''misi''' ap songa.  The woman heard the song.
 
Sac iz smelise ip '''misi''' flora.  The woman smelled a flower.
 
Sac iz hotine ip '''mani''' doga.  The man thought about a dog.
 
Sac iz kognizine ip '''misi''' spanixa.  The woman knows Spanish.
 
Sac iz nowine ip '''mani''' ap misa.  The man knows the woman.
 
Sac az bilivine ip '''mani''' Goda.  The man believes in God.
 
 
 
''Benefactor Case''
 
examples:
 
Sac iz bayzile op mano kara '''dileri'''.  The man bought a car from a dealer.
 
Sac iz seline op selmiso ap dresa ip '''misi'''.  The saleswoman sold the dress to a woman.
 
Sac iz azile op mano ip '''misi''' gifta.  The man gave the woman a gift.
 
Sac az lakine ip '''misi''' huzbana.  The woman lacks a husband.
 
Sac iz azile op miso ip '''kidi''' helpa.  The woman helps the child.  (The woman gives the child help.)
 
Sac iz lakise ip '''misi''' iringa.  The woman lost an earring.
 
Sac az azine ip '''mani''' buka.  The man has a book.
 
 
 
''Location Case''
 
examples:
 
Sac az atine ap mana '''husi'''.  The man is at home.
 
Sac iz entise ap misa '''stori'''.  The woman enters the store.
 
Sac iz wakile op kido ap doga '''parki'''.  The child walked the dog at the park.
 
Sac iz wakise ap kida '''tuparki'''.  The child walked to the park.
 
Sac iz wakise ap kida '''froparki'''.  The child walked from the park.
 
 
 
''Time Case''
 
examples:
 
Sac oz okurise mitinga pentip '''minuti'''.  The meeting will take place in five minutes.
 
Sac iz okurise festiva '''yesti'''.  The party happened yesterday.
 
 
 
''Range Case''
 
examples:
 
Sac az wezine ap doga 70 '''pondi'''.  The dog weighs 70 pounds.
 
Sac az kostine ap buka dekip '''dolari'''.  The book costs ten dollars.
 
 
 
''Comparative Case''
 
examples:
 
Sac iz kamperine op mano ip '''apli''' bala.  The man compared the apple to a ball.
 
Sac iz kotrine op miso ip '''dogi''' kata.  The woman contrasted the dog to a cat.
 
 
 
'''Coreferential Cases'''
 
Coreferential cases are used when a nominal fulfills two roles in a clause.  In Eska there are 3 coreferential roles: -ia Dative + Object, -io Dative + Agent, and -oa Agent + Object.
 
examples:
 
Sac iz hirile iop '''misio''' ap songa.  The woman listened to the song.
 
Sac iz vidile iop '''manio''' ap ava.  The man watched the bird.
 
Sac iz bitane oap '''manoa''' hamaror.  The man hit himself with a hammer.
 
 
 
'''Articles'''
 
In Eska articles form a special word class.  Articles take the ending -p.  You have already encountered some articles in the examples.  Articles agree in case with the noun they modify.  Object articles end in -ap.  Dativew articles end in -ip. And Agent articles end in -op.
 
Ap  The
 
Disap  This, these
 
Datap  That, those
 
Unap man  One man
 
Dosap misa  Two women
 
Hrap kida  Three children
 
Kwadrap doga  Four dogs
 
Pentap kata  Five cats
 
Multap kara  Many cars
 
Fap husa  A few houses
 
Parap buka  A partial book
 
 
 
'''Predicates'''
 
Main Predicates end in -e.  Subordinate Predicates end in -u.  Embedded predicates take two suffixes: they take the Subordinate Predicate suffix -u plus one of the case suffixes:  -a, -i, or -o.  Reduced Predicates do not take any of these suffixes.  In addition to these final suffixes all predicates take two other suffixes:  a Dative Status suffix, and a Class suffix.
 
The Dative Status suffix has two possibilities: -i, and -a.  When a Dative argument is '''not''' required by a Predicate, the Dative Status suffix is -a.  When a Dative argument '''is''' required by a Predicate, the Dative Status suffix is -i.
 
The Class suffix determines which type of Predicate is being used.  For State Verbs the suffix -n is used.  For Inchoative Verbs the suffix -s is used.  And for Causative Verbs the suffix -l is used.
 
Predicate suffixes appear in this order:  Dative Status + Class + (Main or Subordinate Predicate) + (Case).  Reduced Predicates take these suffixes:  Case + Class.
 
 
 
''Main Predicates''
 
examples:
 
Sac iz '''kognizine''' ip misi spanixa.  The woman knows Spanish.
 
Sac az '''nowine''' ip mani ap misa.  The man knows the woman.
 
Sac iz '''vidine''' ip misi ap mana.  The woman saw the man.
 
Sac iz '''smelise''' ip misi flora.  The woman smelled a flower.
 
 
 
''Subordinate Predicates''
 
examples:
 
'''Atisu''' ap mana husi, sac iz atine ap misa deri.  When the man came home, the woman was there.
 
Sac iz noj vidise ip mani nobada, '''wakisu''' ha awi.  The man didn't see anybody, (so) he walked away.
 
 
 
''Embedded Predicates''
 
examples:
 
Sac iz vidise ip misi '''atanua''' ava ip tri.  The woman spied the bird in the tree. (The woman spied the bird being (at) in the tree.)
 
Sac iz
 
 
 
''Reduced Predicates''
 
Reduced Predicates translate as a relative clause.  They function similar to an adjective in English.
 
examples:
 
ap '''talan''' mana  the tall man
 
ap '''engran''' misa  the angry woman
 
ap '''dedan''' mana  the dead man
 
ap '''dedas''' mana  the dying man (the died man)
 
ap '''dedal''' mana  the killed man
 
ap '''butufan''' flora  the beautiful flower
 
 
 
'''Degree'''
 
Degree adverbs form their own word class in Eska.  They take the suffix -g.
 
examples:
 
'''veg'''  very, much
 
'''sog'''  so, this, that, how
 
'''bereg'''  barely, hardly
 
'''almog'''  almost, nearly
 
'''inag'''  enough
 
'''greg'''  greatly, highly
 
'''fulag'''  fully, completely, totally
 
'''mog'''  most
 
'''meg'''  more
 
'''leseg'''  less
 
'''lesteg'''  least
 
'''kwag'''  quite, really
 
ap '''veg''' bigan man  the very big man
 
Sac iz '''sog''' gudan ap fuda.  The food is so good.
 
Sac iz '''bereg''' livane ap misa.  The woman barely survived.
 
Sac az '''almog''' dedase ap mana.  The man almost died.
 
 
 
'''Modality'''
 
A clause is divided into a Proposition and a Modality.  The above sections have dealt exclusively with the Proposition.  Now we will focus on the Modality.  The Modality includes:  Modal nominals, Negative, Tense, Mood, Aspect, Voice, Performatives, Manner, Temporals, and Frequency.
 
 
 
'''Modal Nominals'''
 
Modal Nominals are nominals that are not necessary for a clause to be grammatical.  They include: Genitive, Instrument, Topic, Commitative and Modal Dative cases.
 
 
 
''Genitive''
 
The Genitive case is called the possessive in English.  In Eska a nominal in the Genitive is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''azinu''' (to have).  The possessed nominal is marked by the suffix -v to show that it is a fronted argument.
 
examples:
 
Sac iz tekile iop misio bukav '''azinu mini'''.  The woman took my book.
 
Sac iz bayzile op mano karav '''azinu misi'''.  The man bought the woman's car.
 
 
 
''Instrument''
 
The Instrument case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''uzanu''' (to use).  It denotes an instrument or means of completing an action.  It can be a tool such as a hammer that is used to pound in a nail.  It can be a weapon used to hurt or kill someone.  It can be the method of completing an action.
 
examples:
 
Sac iz bitane op mano ap misa '''uzanu cluba'''.  The man clubbed the woman.  (The man hit the woman using a club.)
 
Sac iz bitane op mano ap mana '''uzanu fista'''.  The man punched another man.  (The man hit the other man using (his) fist.)
 
Sac iz bitane op mano ap nela '''uzanu hamara'''.  The man hammered in the nail.  (The man hit the nail using a hammer.)
 
Sac iz beldane op mano ap veg bigan husi '''uzanu brika'''.  The man built the very big house using bricks.
 
 
 
''Topic''
 
Topic can be used to indicate the "topic" of discussion.  It is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''rigardinu''' (to regard, concern).
 
examples:
 
'''Rigardinu fixa''', sac az naj plizine ta mi.  Speaking of fish, I don't like it.  (Speaking of fish, it doesn't please me.)
 
 
 
''Commitative''
 
Commitative case denotes accompaniment.  It is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''akompaninu''' (to accompany).
 
examples:
 
Sac iz atise xa husi '''akompaninu mini'''.  She came home with me.
 
 
 
''Modal Dative''
 
Modal Dative case denotes a dative use that is not an argument of the verb.  The Modal Experiencer case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''expirinu''' (to experience).  The Modal Benefactor case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''azilu''' (to give).  The Modal Location case is marked my the Subordinate predicate '''atinu''' (to be at).  The Modal Time case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''okurinu''' (to occur, happen).  The Modal Range case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''mezurinu''' (to measure).  The Modal Comparison case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''komperinu''' (to compare)
 
examples:
 
Sac iz vidise ip mani ap misa '''atinu parki'''.  The man spied the woman at the park.  (Vidise is in the Experiential Domain and does not require a location.)
 
Sac iz bayzale op mano buka '''azilu mini'''.  The man bought a book for me.  (Bayzale is in the Benefactive Domain and does not require 'for me'.  If '''azilu mini''' is replaced by '''mini''' then the sentence would mean:  the man bought a book from me.)
 
 
 
'''Manner'''
 
Manner is marked by the suffix -eh.
 
examples:
 
Sac iz wakine ap mana tuparki '''sloveh'''.  The man walked slowly to the park.
 
Sac iz runine ap misa froparki '''kwikeh'''.  The woman ran quickly from the park.
 
 
 
'''Frequency'''
 
Frequency is marked by -oh.
 
examples:
 
'''nevoh'''  never
 
'''alvoh'''  always
 
'''oftoh'''  often
 
'''seldoh'''  seldom
 
'''regoh'''  regularly, periodically
 
'''negoh'''  irregularly
 
'''okoh'''  occaisionally
 
 
 
'''Temporal'''
 
Temporal is marked by -ah.
 
'''forah'''  forever
 
'''nah'''  now
 
'''henah'''  then
 
'''befah'''  before
 
'''aftah'''  after
 
'''arlah'''  earlier
 
'''letah'''  later
 
'''todah'''  today
 
'''yestah'''  yesterday
 
'''tumah'''  tomorrow
 
'''yeswikah'''  last week
 
'''nekwikah'''  next week
 
'''yiragah'''  a year ago
 
'''yirkamah'''  in a year
 
'''penakah'''  at 5:00
 
'''orakamah'''  in an hour
 
'''momenagah'''  a moment ago
 
'''dekap dezagah'''  ten days ago
 
'''kwah?'''  when?
 
 
 
'''Verbal Modalities'''
 
''Negation''
 
Negation is marked by the suffix -j.
 
examples:
 
noj  no, not
 
Sac az noj plizine fixa mini.  I don't like fish.  (Fish doesn't please me.)
 
''Tense''
 
Tense is marked by the suffix -z.
 
examples:
 
az  present
 
iz  past
 
oz  future
 
avaz  perfect
 
ingaz  progressive
 
botaz  prospective
 
Sac az avaz itane op mano apla.  The man has eaten an apple.
 
Sac az ingaz baytane op dogo ap mana.  The dog is biting the man.
 
Kwac az botaz gozine va husi?  Are you about to leave home?
 
''Voice''
 
Voice is marked by the suffix -b.
 
examples:
 
-0  active/direct
 
pasib  passive
 
envib  inverse
 
medib  middle
 
reflib  reflexive
 
siprib  reciprocal
 
Sac az pasib itane apla.  The apple is eaten.
 
Sac iz envib baytane ap mana op dogo.  The dog bit the man (inverse).
 
''Aspect''
 
Aspect is marked by the suffix -k.
 
examples:
 
trak  iterative
 
bitak  habitual
 
stak  inceptive
 
sesak  cessative
 
rizak  resumptive
 
kompak  completive
 
Sac iz trak bitane op mano ap misa.  The man beat the woman.  (The man hit the woman repeatedly.)
 
Sac az bitak drikane op miso kafa.  The woman usually drinks coffee.
 
''Mood''
 
Mood is marked by the suffix -x.
 
examples:
 
-0  indicative
 
jex  subjunctive
 
bligex  obligation
 
ablex  ability
 
lex  permissive
 
surtex  certainty
 
pasex  possibility
 
probex  probability
 
sotrex  sometimes true
 
sugex  suggestive
 
nesex  necessity
 
evdex  evidentiality
 
envex  inevitability
 
eptex  acceptability
 
segnex  significance
 
sikwex  consequentiality
 
Sac az ablex vidine ip mani ap ava.  The man can see the bird.
 
'''Performatives'''
 
Performatives take the suffix -c
 
examples:
 
sac  statement
 
dac  imperative
 
kwac  interrogative
 
skac  exclamation
 
 
 
 




Xagena
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