Eska
Differences between the Matrix Model and Extended Case Grammar
Eska is a conlang based on Case Grammar; more specifically, it is based on Extended Case Grammar which is my particular view of Case Grammar. Extended Case Grammar follows the Matrix Model applied by Walter Cook with a few exceptions. In Cook's Matrix Model there are four mutually exclusive cases: Experiencer, Benefactor, Location, and Time. To this list I add Range. It must be noted here that both the Matrix Model and Extended Case Grammar use semantic case rather than syntactic case. I know of no natural language that marks semantic case.
In the Matrix Model and in Extended Case Grammar predicates each belong to a particular domain. Predicates are divided into a number of domains. A predicate that only uses Object and possibly Agent cases is said to be in the Basic Domain. A predicate requiring the Experiencer case is said to be in the Experiential Domain. A predicate requiring the Benefactor case is said to be in the Benefactive Domain. A predicate requiring the Location case is said to be in the Locative Domain. A predicate requiring the Time case is said to be in the Temporal Domain. A predicate requiring the Range case is said to be in the Range Domain. And a predicate requiring the Comparison case is said to be in the Comparative Domain. (The Range and Comparative Domains are not used in the Matrix Model, because Cook examines a single novel for his input. Extended Case Grammar uses dictionaries for their input, which yielded the Range Domain as well as all of the other domains.)
Predicates are also divided into three classes: State verbs, Inchoative verbs, and Causative verbs. (The Matrix Model calls these: State verbs, Process verbs, and Action Verbs, respectively.) State verbs denote an unchanging state or condition. Examples are: be good, be tall, be old, be happy, be hungry, be sad, see, hear, have, lack, be at, be inside, be outside, be ready to walk, be on (day), weigh, and measure. Inchoative verbs include: get better, get taller, become happier, get hungrier, become sadder, spy, start to hear, get, lose, arrive, enter, exit, walk, last (for time), allocate, and appropriate. Causative verbs include: make good, make tall, make old, make hungry, make sad, show, make hear, give, discard, take away, bring, insert, remove, walk (a dog), spend (time), add, and subtract. State verbs are taken to be the basic form of verbs with the Inchoative and Causative verbs being derived from State verbs. An Inchoative verb is derived from a State verb by adding the inchoative notion of becoming or changing. A Causative verb is derived from an Inchoative verb by adding the notion of causation. A simple example would be the verbs be hungry, become hungry, and make hungry. Be hungry is a State verb; it denotes an unchanging state. Become hungry is derived from be hungry by adding the notion of becoming; therefore, become hungry is an Inchoative verb. Make hungry is derived from become by adding the notion of causing; therefore, make hungry is a Causative verb.
In the Matrix Model, Walter Cook designates be as a verb in its own right. I disagree with him. I view be as a predicative particle that attaches to syntactic nouns and adjectives to yield State verbs. In Eska state predicates include be + complement. Become + compliment yields an Inchoative verb. Make + compliment yields a Causative verb.
Two other important differences will be noted here: the Matrix Model allows two occurrences of the Object case within the same clause. In Eska using Extended Case Grammar, I disallow this; I reinterpret these clauses as having an Object case and a Benefactive case. The Matrix Model only allows a clause to be embedded under the Object case. Extended Case Grammar and Eska in particular allow clauses to be embedded under any case. Embedding a clause under the Agent case has the effect of a because clause.
Extended Case Grammar
In Case Grammar all nouns are treated as having semantic case, and the predicate is viewed as the most important member of a clause. From the beginning of Case Grammar with Charles Fillmore, a clause has been divided into a Proposition and a Modality. The proposition is "a tenselessset of relationships involving verbs and nouns "(Fillmore 1968:23), and the modality is "includes such modalities on the sentence-as-a-whole as negation, tense, mood, and aspect" (Fillmore 1968:23). A Proposition is further divided into a Predicate and its arguments. The Modality can be divided into Modal cases and Verbal modalities.
Many systems of Case Grammar have been proposed; each of them having particular strengths and weaknesses. Extended Case Grammar begins with the Matrix Model and extends it into a full grammar. (See above section for the differences between the two.)
Propositional Cases
Each predicate requires a number of cases. The number of cases required by a particular predicate is called the predicates valency. Predicates may require one, two, or three cases. Valency is directly related to the meaning of the predicate.
Object Case
The Object case is required for every predicate. "Object is the neutral underlying theme of the state, process, or action described by the verb" (Cook 1989:191). The Object case is "the semantically most neutral case, the case of anything representable by a noun whose role in the action or state identified by the verb is identified by the semantic interpretation of the verb itself" (Fillmore 1968:25).
examples: The book is red.
The sky is blue.
The man is tall.
The man sees a woman.
The dog chased a cat.
The woman has a car.
The woman bought a dress.
The man is at home.
The meeting is on Monday.
The dog weighs 70 pounds.
Agent Case
The Agent case is required by a causative predicate. The Agent is the entity responsible for causing the action of the verb. "Although Agent is the typically animate performer of the verbal action, inanimate nouns may also occur as Agents. These include physical objects, machines, communities, and natural forces, anything capable of producing the action described by the verb" (Cook 1989:191).
examples:
The man painted the house red.
The woman bought a dress from the boutique.
The man gave the woman a gift.
The man showed the woman a trick.
The dog chased the cat.
The man brought food home.
The man talked to the woman.
Experiencer Case
The Experiencer case is required by an Experiential verb. "Experiencer is the person experiencing sensation, emotion, or cognition. In verbs of communication the experiencer is the hearer. Experience deals only with the inner life of man, not with experience in the more general sense" (Cook 1989:191).
examples:
The woman sees a bird.
The woman spied a bird.
The man showed the woman a trick.
The man hears the woman.
The child wants to play.
The child is sad. (The child feels sadness.)
The child is hungry. (The child feels hunger.)
The man talks to the woman.
The woman listens to music.
The woman knows Spanish.
The man thinks about rock climbing.
Benefactor Case
The Benefactor case is required by a Benefactive verb. Benefactor "is the possessor of an object or the nonagentive party in the transfer of property. Benefaction may be either positive or negative and the benefactor may be a gainer or a loser" (Cook 1989:191)
examples:
The man has a book.
The woman bought a dress from the boutique.
The man got a letter.
The woman sold a car to the man.
The woman owns a house.
The man lacks a wife.
The woman lost an earring.
The thief stole money from the bank.
Location Case
The Location case is required by a Locative verb. Location "is restricted to physical location in space and includes both stative location with state verbs, and directional source and goal locatives with process and action verbs" (Cook 1989:191).
examples:
The man is at home.
The woman is inside.
The dog is outside.
The man enters the house.
The woman exits the house.
The cat climbs the drapes.
The child walks the dog to the park.
Time Case
The Time Case is required by Temporal verbs. "Time is predicated of an event as in the meeting is on Wednesday" (Cook 1989:196). "Process verbs may occur such as last,...and action verbs occur such as spend (time)" (Cook 1989:196).
examples:
The meeting lasts for an hour.
The man spends the day with the woman.
Range Case
The Range case is required by Range verbs. Range is used by verbs such as: weigh, measure, cost, allocate, appropriate, total and bid.
examples:
The dog weighs 70 pounds.
The book cost $10.
The man bid $100.
Comparison Case
The Comparison case is required by Comparative verbs. Comparison is used by verbs such as: compare, contrast, be the same, be different, be more, and be less.
examples:
The man compares the apples to each other.
The woman contrasts the lemons with the limes.
The book is more than 400 pages.
The toy is less than the candy.
State Verbs
State verbs have a valency of one or two; that is, they require one or two arguments (nominals) in their clauses. A State verb represents an unchanging state or condition.
examples:
The man is tall.
The woman is beautiful.
The man is old.
The woman is happy.
The man has a book.
The woman lacks a husband.
The man sees a woman.
The woman hears a bird.
The man smells coffee.
The woman tastes the donut.
The man is at home.
The child is in bed.
The dog is outside.
The meeting is on Wednesday.
The dog weighs 70 pounds.
Inchoative Verbs
Inchoative verbs denote a change of state. There is no agent mentioned or implied. The change of state occurs naturally.
examples:
The man becomes old.
The woman gets happier.
The man gets a book.
The woman loses her husband.
The man spied a woman.
The woman began to hear a bird.
The man begins to smell the coffee.
The woman begins to taste the donut.
The man arrives home.
The child goes to bed.
The meeting lasted an hour.
The woman allocates a place for the book.
Causative Verbs
Causative verbs denote a change of state that is caused by an Agent. The agent is either explicitly mentioned or implied.
examples:
Family makes the woman happier.
The woman gives the man a book.
The man buys a book.
The woman divorces her husband.
The man showed the woman a trick.
The woman listened to the bird.
The man sold a car.
The woman spends an hour in the park.
Overt Case Roles
Overt case roles are nominals that appear in the surface structure of a clause. Overt case roles "are always present in the surface structure of simple active sentences" (Cook 1989:201).
examples:
The man saw a beautiful woman.
The dog chased a cat.
The salesman sold a car.
The child bought candy.
The man showed the woman a trick.
The woman spends an hour in the park.
Covert Case Roles
Covert case roles "are sometimes or always absent from the surface structure. Covert roles may be partially covert or totally covert. Partially covert roles are sometimes present and sometimes absent and are called deletable roles. Totally covert roles are roles that are never present in the surface structure despite the fact that they are part of the verb's valence. Totally covert roles include both coreferential roles and lexicalized roles" (Cook 1989:201).
Deletable Case Roles
examples:
The woman is cooking (something).
The man seems (to me) to be sad.
Susan told me (something).
Susan said something (to me).
Nick sold the car (to somebody).
John filled the glass (with water).
John poured milk (into the glass).
She told me (that she was sick).
Coreferential Case Roles
examples:
John looked at the sunrise.
John = Agent + one who sees Agent = Experiencer
George frightened the baby.
George = Agent + cause of the fright Agent = Object
The girls caught 5 fish.
Catch = acquire for self Agent = Benefactor
Sue went to New York.
Sue = Agent + moving object Agent = Object
Lexicalized Case Roles
Eska does not allow lexicalized case roles.
Eska
Consonants
p t k b d f v s z m n l r y w j as in English
g always hard
c pronounce like ch
x pronounce like sh
h pronounce like th in thin
Vowels
a e i o u as in Spanish
Diphthongs
ay like my
oy toy soil
au ow couch
Stress
Penultimate stress when word ends in a vowel.
Final stress when word ends in a consonant.
Nominals
Nominals are marked for case in Eska. Object case takes the suffix -a. Dative case takes the suffix -i Agent case takes the suffix -o.
Object Case
The Object case is marked by -a. It is the most neutral case. Please do not confuse the Object case with a direct object. Eska does not recognize syntactic categories such as subject, direct object, and indirect object.
examples:
Sac iz vidine ip mani misa. The man saw a woman.
Sac iz vidise ip mani ava. The man spied a bird.
Sac iz baytile op mano kara. The man bought a car.
Sac az imoxine mani hapa. The man is happy. (The man feels happiness.)
Sac az azine ip misi buka. The woman has a book.
Sac az atine ap kida husi. The child is at home.
Sac az wezine ap doga 70 pondi. The dog weighs 70 pounds.
Sac az talane ap mana. The man is tall.
Agent Case
The Agent case is marked by -o It marks the agent responsible for the action of a Causative verb.
examples:
Sac iz vidine op mano ip misi ava. The man showed the woman a bird.
Sac iz baytine op mano kara. The man bought a car.
Sac iz azine op mano ip misi buka. The man gave the woman a book.
Sac iz dedale op mano ap misa. The man killed the woman.
Sac iz wakine op kido doga ip parki. The child walked the dog at the park.
Dative Case
The Dative case is a hypercase of mutually exclusive cases including: Experiencer, Benefactor, Location, Time, and Range. The Experiencer case occurs with the Experiential Domain. The Benefactor case occurs with the Benefactive Domain. The Location case occurs with the Locative Domain. The Time case occurs with the Temporal Domain. And the Range case occurs with the Range Domain.
Experiencer Case
examples:
Sac iz vidine ip misi mana. The woman saw a man.
Sac iz vidise ip misi mana. The woman spied a man.
Sac iz hirine ip misi ap songa. The woman heard the song.
Sac iz smelise ip misi flora. The woman smelled a flower.
Sac iz hotine ip mani doga. The man thought about a dog.
Sac iz kognizine ip misi spanixa. The woman knows Spanish.
Sac iz nowine ip mani ap misa. The man knows the woman.
Sac az bilivine ip mani Goda. The man believes in God.
Benefactor Case
examples:
Sac iz bayzile op mano kara dileri. The man bought a car from a dealer.
Sac iz seline op selmiso ap dresa ip misi. The saleswoman sold the dress to a woman.
Sac iz azile op mano ip misi gifta. The man gave the woman a gift.
Sac az lakine ip misi huzbana. The woman lacks a husband.
Sac iz azile op miso ip kidi helpa. The woman helps the child. (The woman gives the child help.)
Sac iz lakise ip misi iringa. The woman lost an earring.
Sac az azine ip mani buka. The man has a book.
Location Case
examples:
Sac az atine ap mana husi. The man is at home.
Sac iz entise ap misa stori. The woman enters the store.
Sac iz wakile op kido ap doga parki. The child walked the dog at the park.
Sac iz wakise ap kida tuparki. The child walked to the park.
Sac iz wakise ap kida froparki. The child walked from the park.
Time Case
examples:
Sac oz okurise mitinga pentip minuti. The meeting will take place in five minutes.
Sac iz okurise festiva yesti. The party happened yesterday.
Range Case
examples:
Sac az wezine ap doga 70 pondi. The dog weighs 70 pounds.
Sac az kostine ap buka dekip dolari. The book costs ten dollars.
Comparative Case
examples:
Sac iz kamperine op mano ip apli bala. The man compared the apple to a ball.
Sac iz kotrine op miso ip dogi kata. The woman contrasted the dog to a cat.
Coreferential Cases
Coreferential cases are used when a nominal fulfills two roles in a clause. In Eska there are 3 coreferential roles: -ia Dative + Object, -io Dative + Agent, and -oa Agent + Object.
examples:
Sac iz hirile iop misio ap songa. The woman listened to the song.
Sac iz vidile iop manio ap ava. The man watched the bird.
Sac iz bitane oap manoa hamaror. The man hit himself with a hammer.
Articles
In Eska articles form a special word class. Articles take the ending -p. You have already encountered some articles in the examples. Articles agree in case with the noun they modify. Object articles end in -ap. Dativew articles end in -ip. And Agent articles end in -op.
Ap The
Disap This, these
Datap That, those
Unap man One man
Dosap misa Two women
Hrap kida Three children
Kwadrap doga Four dogs
Pentap kata Five cats
Multap kara Many cars
Fap husa A few houses
Parap buka A partial book
Predicates
Main Predicates end in -e. Subordinate Predicates end in -u. Embedded predicates take two suffixes: they take the Subordinate Predicate suffix -u plus one of the case suffixes: -a, -i, or -o. Reduced Predicates do not take any of these suffixes. In addition to these final suffixes all predicates take two other suffixes: a Dative Status suffix, and a Class suffix.
The Dative Status suffix has two possibilities: -i, and -a. When a Dative argument is not required by a Predicate, the Dative Status suffix is -a. When a Dative argument is required by a Predicate, the Dative Status suffix is -i.
The Class suffix determines which type of Predicate is being used. For State Verbs the suffix -n is used. For Inchoative Verbs the suffix -s is used. And for Causative Verbs the suffix -l is used.
Predicate suffixes appear in this order: Dative Status + Class + (Main or Subordinate Predicate) + (Case). Reduced Predicates take these suffixes: Case + Class.
Main Predicates
examples:
Sac iz kognizine ip misi spanixa. The woman knows Spanish.
Sac az nowine ip mani ap misa. The man knows the woman.
Sac iz vidine ip misi ap mana. The woman saw the man.
Sac iz smelise ip misi flora. The woman smelled a flower.
Subordinate Predicates
examples:
Atisu ap mana husi, sac iz atine ap misa deri. When the man came home, the woman was there.
Sac iz noj vidise ip mani nobada, wakisu ha awi. The man didn't see anybody, (so) he walked away.
Embedded Predicates
examples:
Sac iz vidise ip misi atanua ava ip tri. The woman spied the bird in the tree. (The woman spied the bird being (at) in the tree.)
Sac iz
Reduced Predicates
Reduced Predicates translate as a relative clause. They function similar to an adjective in English.
examples:
ap talan mana the tall man
ap engran misa the angry woman
ap dedan mana the dead man
ap dedas mana the dying man (the died man)
ap dedal mana the killed man
ap butufan flora the beautiful flower
Degree
Degree adverbs form their own word class in Eska. They take the suffix -g.
examples:
veg very, much
sog so, this, that, how
bereg barely, hardly
almog almost, nearly
inag enough
greg greatly, highly
fulag fully, completely, totally
mog most
meg more
leseg less
lesteg least
kwag quite, really
ap veg bigan man the very big man
Sac iz sog gudan ap fuda. The food is so good.
Sac iz bereg livane ap misa. The woman barely survived.
Sac az almog dedase ap mana. The man almost died.
Modality
A clause is divided into a Proposition and a Modality. The above sections have dealt exclusively with the Proposition. Now we will focus on the Modality. The Modality includes: Modal nominals, Negative, Tense, Mood, Aspect, Voice, Performatives, Manner, Temporals, and Frequency.
Modal Nominals
Modal Nominals are nominals that are not necessary for a clause to be grammatical. They include: Genitive, Instrument, Topic, Commitative and Modal Dative cases.
Genitive
The Genitive case is called the possessive in English. In Eska a nominal in the Genitive is marked by the Subordinate predicate azinu (to have). The possessed nominal is marked by the suffix -v to show that it is a fronted argument.
examples:
Sac iz tekile iop misio bukav azinu mini. The woman took my book.
Sac iz bayzile op mano karav azinu misi. The man bought the woman's car.
Instrument
The Instrument case is marked by the Subordinate predicate uzanu (to use). It denotes an instrument or means of completing an action. It can be a tool such as a hammer that is used to pound in a nail. It can be a weapon used to hurt or kill someone. It can be the method of completing an action.
examples:
Sac iz bitane op mano ap misa uzanu cluba. The man clubbed the woman. (The man hit the woman using a club.)
Sac iz bitane op mano ap mana uzanu fista. The man punched another man. (The man hit the other man using (his) fist.)
Sac iz bitane op mano ap nela uzanu hamara. The man hammered in the nail. (The man hit the nail using a hammer.)
Sac iz beldane op mano ap veg bigan husi uzanu brika. The man built the very big house using bricks.
Topic
Topic can be used to indicate the "topic" of discussion. It is marked by the Subordinate predicate rigardinu (to regard, concern).
examples:
Rigardinu fixa, sac az naj plizine ta mi. Speaking of fish, I don't like it. (Speaking of fish, it doesn't please me.)
Commitative
Commitative case denotes accompaniment. It is marked by the Subordinate predicate akompaninu (to accompany).
examples:
Sac iz atise xa husi akompaninu mini. She came home with me.
Modal Dative
Modal Dative case denotes a dative use that is not an argument of the verb. The Modal Experiencer case is marked by the Subordinate predicate expirinu (to experience). The Modal Benefactor case is marked by the Subordinate predicate azilu (to give). The Modal Location case is marked my the Subordinate predicate atinu (to be at). The Modal Time case is marked by the Subordinate predicate okurinu (to occur, happen). The Modal Range case is marked by the Subordinate predicate mezurinu (to measure). The Modal Comparison case is marked by the Subordinate predicate komperinu (to compare)
examples:
Sac iz vidise ip mani ap misa atinu parki. The man spied the woman at the park. (Vidise is in the Experiential Domain and does not require a location.)
Sac iz bayzale op mano buka azilu mini. The man bought a book for me. (Bayzale is in the Benefactive Domain and does not require 'for me'. If azilu mini is replaced by mini then the sentence would mean: the man bought a book from me.)
Manner
Manner is marked by the suffix -eh.
examples:
Sac iz wakine ap mana tuparki sloveh. The man walked slowly to the park.
Sac iz runine ap misa froparki kwikeh. The woman ran quickly from the park.
Frequency
Frequency is marked by -oh.
examples:
nevoh never
alvoh always
oftoh often
seldoh seldom
regoh regularly, periodically
negoh irregularly
okoh occaisionally
Temporal
Temporal is marked by -ah.
forah forever
nah now
henah then
befah before
aftah after
arlah earlier
letah later
todah today
yestah yesterday
tumah tomorrow
yeswikah last week
nekwikah next week
yiragah a year ago
yirkamah in a year
penakah at 5:00
orakamah in an hour
momenagah a moment ago
dekap dezagah ten days ago
kwah? when?
Verbal Modalities
Negation
Negation is marked by the suffix -j.
examples:
noj no, not
Sac az noj plizine fixa mini. I don't like fish. (Fish doesn't please me.)
Tense
Tense is marked by the suffix -z.
examples:
az present
iz past
oz future
avaz perfect
ingaz progressive
botaz prospective
Sac az avaz itane op mano apla. The man has eaten an apple.
Sac az ingaz baytane op dogo ap mana. The dog is biting the man.
Kwac az botaz gozine va husi? Are you about to leave home?
Voice
Voice is marked by the suffix -b.
examples:
-0 active/direct
pasib passive
envib inverse
medib middle
reflib reflexive
siprib reciprocal
Sac az pasib itane apla. The apple is eaten.
Sac iz envib baytane ap mana op dogo. The dog bit the man (inverse).
Aspect
Aspect is marked by the suffix -k.
examples:
trak iterative
bitak habitual
stak inceptive
sesak cessative
rizak resumptive
kompak completive
Sac iz trak bitane op mano ap misa. The man beat the woman. (The man hit the woman repeatedly.)
Sac az bitak drikane op miso kafa. The woman usually drinks coffee.
Mood
Mood is marked by the suffix -x.
examples:
-0 indicative
jex subjunctive
bligex obligation
ablex ability
lex permissive
surtex certainty
pasex possibility
probex probability
sotrex sometimes true
sugex suggestive
nesex necessity
evdex evidentiality
envex inevitability
eptex acceptability
segnex significance
sikwex consequentiality
Sac az ablex vidine ip mani ap ava. The man can see the bird.
Performatives
Performatives take the suffix -c
examples:
sac statement
dac imperative
kwac interrogative
skac exclamation
References:
Fillmore, Charles J. 1968 The Case for Case
Cook, Walter A., S. J. 1989 Case Grammar Theory