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**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'')
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'')
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- become /j/.
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- usually become /j/.
**Differs from Catalan and (sometimes) Galician/Portuguese.
**Differs from Catalan. However, there are many exceptions to this pattern.
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major'').
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major'').
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''vui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe'').
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''avui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe'').
:::FUGĪRE > ''fugir'' /fuˈʒiɾ/ "to flee" (Catalan, Portuguese ''fugir'', Asturian, Galician ''fuxir'' vs Spanish ''huir'').
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
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*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''.
*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''.
**Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan.
**Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan.
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/.
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/ (through intermediate stage /ts/).
**Shared with Aragonese.
**Shared with Aragonese.
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
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===Phonological history===
===Phonological history===
*Final vowel dropping:
*Final vowel dropping:
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, ss, t, z''.
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, t, z''.
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''.
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''.
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''.
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''.
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|}
|}


==Verbs==
===Verbs===
====Tenses and moods====
====Tenses and moods====
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods:
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods:
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|-
|-
! Gerundive
! Gerundive
| -ando || colspan="2"|-iendo²
| -ando || -endo || -indo
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
'''Notes:'''


¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles (which often are also considered archaic).
¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles, which may or may not coexist with regular forms.
<!--
² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.-->


² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''=====
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
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|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| -en || -aven || -én || -arán || -areven || -eren
| -en || -aven || -ón || -arán || -areven || -eren
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| -en || -even || -ién || -erán || -ereven || -ieren
| -en || -even || -ión || -erán || -ereven || -ieren
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-er'' verbs)
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ir'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
|-
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|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| -en || -iven || -ién || -irán || -ireven || -ieren
| -en || -iven || -ión || -irán || -ireven || -ieren
|-
|-
|}
|}
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¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants.
¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants.
 
<!--
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.-->


====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''=====
====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''=====
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**'''Other persons:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
**'''Other persons:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
*'''Negative:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
*'''Negative:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
====='''Notes on irregular verbs'''=====
====='''Compound tenses'''=====
Compound tenses are formed with the verb ''aver'' "to have" followed by the past participle. They differ from each other according to the tense of the auxiliary verb.
*Non-finite forms:
**Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect gerundive: ''avendo'' + participle
*Indicative:
**Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle
**Compound pluperfect: imperfect of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect: future of ''aver'' + participle
**Conditional perfect: conditional of ''aver'' + participle
*Subjunctive:
**Perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
<!---
====='''Periphrastic tenses'''=====
In addition to the usual simple and compound tenses, there are additional periphrastic tenses formed with auxiliary verbs. These can themselves take any simple or compound tense.-->
 
====='''Passive'''=====
Formed with the appropriate conjugation of ''ser'' with the appropriately declined form of the past participle.
 
It can also be used as a pseudopassive, especially with intransitive verbs. In this case, the participle is always in the neuter.
 
====Irregular verbs====
====='''General notes'''=====
*Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include:
*Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include:
**''-o-'' > ''-ue-''
**''-o-'' > ''-ue-''
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**''-ch-'' > ''-it-''
**''-ch-'' > ''-it-''
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply.
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply.
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' formed by contraction. This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future.
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' (usually formed by contraction). This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future.
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions):
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions):
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
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|-
|-
!1P
!1P
| -ién
| -én
|-
|-
!2P
!2P
| -iez
| -ez
|-
|-
!3P
!3P
| -ién
| -on
|-
|-
|}
|}
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-s'' from the 2S preterite and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant.
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-n'' from the 1P preterite indicative and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant.
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below.
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks
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| gü || gu ||
| gü || gu ||
|}
|}
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change.
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir, -ger, -gir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change.
<!--
<!--
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.-->
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.-->
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|-
|-
! Participle
! Participle
| sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito
| sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito; <br/>
sut/sutos, suta/sutes, suto¹
|-
|-
! Gerundive
! Gerundive
| siendo
| sendo
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
¹ Archaic
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
|-
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|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| son || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren
| son/sen || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| soz || yérez || fuez || sérez || serévez || fuérez
| soz/sez || yérez || fuez || serez || serévez || fuérez
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
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{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple subjunctive tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| siya || fuesse || fuere
| siya || fuesse || fuere || —
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| siyas || fuessas || fueras
| siyas || fuessas || fueras || sé
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| siya || fuesse || fuere
| siya || fuesse || fuere || siya
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| siyán || fuessan || fueran
| siyán || fuessan || fueran || siyán
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz
| siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz || set
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| siyan || fuessan || fueran
| siyan || fuessan || fueran || siyan
|-
|-
|}
|}


====='''Compound tenses'''=====
====='''The verb ''aver'' "to be"'''=====
Compound tenses are formed with the verb ''aver'' "to have" followed by the past participle. They differ from each other according to the tense of the auxiliary verb.
The verb ''aver'' "to have" is an important irregular verb.
*Non-finite forms:
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
**Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
**Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle
! Infinitive
**Perfect gerundive: ''haviendo'' + participle
| aver
*Indicative:
|-
**Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle
! Participle
**Compound pluperfect: imperfect of ''aver'' + participle
| avit/avitos, avita/avites, avito; <br />
**Future perfect: future of ''aver'' + participle
avut/avutos, avuta/avutes, avuto¹
**Conditional perfect: conditional of ''aver'' + participle
|-
*Subjunctive:
! Gerundive
**Perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
| avendo
**Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
|-
**Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite² !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect²
|-
! 1S
| e || eva || ovi || avré || avreva || overa
|-
! 2S
| as || eves || oves || avrás || avreves || overes
|-
! 3S
| a || eva || ovo || avrá || avreva || overa
|-
! 1P
| avén || even || ovén || avrén || avreven || overen
|-
! 2P
| avez || évez || ovez || avrez || avrévez || ovérez
|-
! 3P
| an || even || ovon || avrán || avreven || overen
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.² !! Future subj.² !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| aya || ovesse || overe || —
|-
! 2S
| ayas || ovessas || overas || a
|-
! 3S
| aya || ovesse || overe || aya
|-
! 1P
| ayán || ovessan || overan || ayán
|-
! 2P
| ayaz || ovéssaz || ovéraz || avet
|-
! 3P
| ayan || ovessan || overan || ayan
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
¹ Participles in ''-ut-'' are considered archaic.
 
² The irregular preterite is shown here. A regular preterite (''aví, aviés,'' etc.) can alternatively be used, in which case the pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive likewise become regular.
 
====='''The verb ''andar'' "to go"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Infinitive
| andar
|-
! Participle
| andat/andatos, andata/andates, andato
|-
! Gerundive
| andando
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| vo || andava || andé || iré || ireva || andera
|-
! 2S
| vas || andaves || andés || irás || ireves || anderes
|-
! 3S
| va || andava || andó || irá || ireva || andera
|-
! 1P
| andán || andaven || andén || irén || ireven || anderen
|-
! 2P
| andaz || andávez || andez || irez || irévez || andérez
|-
! 3P
| van || andaven || andón || irán || ireven || anderen
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.³ !! Future subj.³ !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| vaya || andesse || andere || —
|-
! 2S
| vayas || andessas || anderas || anda
|-
! 3S
| vaya || andesse || andere || vaya
|-
! 1P
| vayán || andessan || anderan || vayán
|-
! 2P
| vayaz || andéssaz || andéraz || andat
|-
! 3P
| vayan || andessan || anderan || vayan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''facer'' "to do, make"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Infinitive
| facer
|-
! Participle
| feit/feitos, feita/feites, feito
|-
! Gerundive
| facendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| faco || feva || fice || faré || fareva || ficera
|-
! 2S
| fas || feves || fices || farás || fareves || ficeres
|-
! 3S
| fa || feva || ficho || fará || fareva || ficera
|-
! 1P
| facén || feven || ficén || farén || fareven || ficeren
|-
! 2P
| facez || févez || ficez || farez || farévez || ficérez
|-
! 3P
| fan || feven || fichon || farán || fareven || ficeren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || —
|-
! 2S
| facas || ficessas || ficeras || fa
|-
! 3S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || faca
|-
! 1P
| facán || ficessan || ficeran || facán
|-
! 2P
| facaz || ficéssaz || ficéraz || facet
|-
! 3P
| facan || ficessan || ficeran || facan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''dicer'' "to say"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''ficer'' "to say"
! Infinitive
| dicer
|-
! Participle
| dit/ditos, dita/dites, dito
|-
! Gerundive
| dicendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| dico || diva || dixe || diré || direva || dixera
|-
! 2S
| dices || dives || dixes || dirás || direves || dixeres
|-
! 3S
| dich || diva || dixo || dirá || direva || dixera
|-
! 1P
| dicén || diven || dixén || dirén || direven || dixeren
|-
! 2P
| dicez || dívez || dixez || direz || dirévez || dixérez
|-
! 3P
| dicen || diven || dixon || dirán || direven || dixeren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || —
|-
! 2S
| dicas || dixessas || dixeras || di
|-
! 3S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || dica
|-
! 1P
| dicán || dixessan || dixeran || dicán
|-
! 2P
| dicaz || dixéssaz || dixéraz || dicet
|-
! 3P
| dican || dixessan || dixeran || dican
|-
|}


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Shariifka
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