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'''Essanian''' (Native: ''xanhán'' /ʃaˈɲan/) is an Iberian Romance language descended from Mozarabic.
'''Essanian''' (/ɪˈseɪniən/, native: ''xanhán'' /ʃaˈɲan/) is an Iberian Romance language descended from Mozarabic.
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Essanian
|name = Essanian
|nativename = La lengua xanhana <br />لَلَانْغُوَ شَنَّنَ
|nativename = La lengua xanhana <br />لَلَِانْغُوَه شَنَّانَه
|pronunciation = la ˈleŋgwa ʃaˈɲana
|pronunciation = la ˈleŋgwa ʃaˈɲana
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
Line 19: Line 19:
|ancestor = [[w:Mozarabic_language|Mozarabic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Mozarabic_language|Mozarabic]]
|ancestor2 = Old Essanian
|ancestor2 = Old Essanian
|ancestor3 = Middle Essanian
|ancestor3 = [[Middle Essanian]]
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|iso1 =  
|iso1 =  
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The endonym ''xanhán'' is derived from the place name ''Xanha'', from Latin ''Hispānia''.  
The endonym ''xanhán'' is derived from the place name ''Xanha'', from Latin ''Hispānia''.  


The English name ''Essanian'' is derived from the Medieval Latin equivalent ''Essanianus'' from Middle Essanian ''exanyán''.
The English name ''Essanian'' is derived from Medieval Latin ''Essanianus'', a Latinization of Middle Essanian ''exanyán''.
===Features===
====Phonological====
*Initial I-, DI- (before vowels), G- (before front vowels) become /dʒ ~ ʒ/.
**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'')
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- usually become /j/.
**Differs from Catalan. However, there are many exceptions to this pattern.
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major'').
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''avui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe'').
:::FUGĪRE > ''fugir'' /fuˈʒiɾ/ "to flee" (Catalan, Portuguese ''fugir'', Asturian, Galician ''fuxir'' vs Spanish ''huir'').
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
**E.g. PŎNTE(M) > ''puent'' /pwen/ (Spanish, Asturian ''puente'' vs Catalan ''pont'', Galician/Portuguese ''ponte'')
:::ŎCTO > ''weito'' /ˈwejto/ "eight" (Aragonese ''ueit(o)'', obsolete Asturian ''uecho'', Catalan ''vuit'' vs Spanish ''ocho'', Galician/Portuguese ''oito'')
:::FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Spanish ''hierro'', Aragonese ''fierro'', Asturian ''fierru'' vs Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ''ferro'')
*Preservation of initial F-.
**Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ''ferro'', Aragonese ''fierro'' vs Spanish ''hierro'')
*Preservation of initial L-.
**Differs from Astur-Leonese and Catalan.
**E.g. LUNA(M) > ''luna'' /ˈluna/ (Spanish, Aragonese ''luna'', Portuguese ''lua'' vs Catalan, Asturian ''lluna'')
*Preservation of initial N-.
**Differs from some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. *NARICE(M) > ''narich'' /naˈɾitʃ/ "nose" (Spanish, Galician/Portuguese, Aragonese ''nariz'', Catalan ''nariu'' vs Asturian ''ñariz'')
*Preservation of intervocalic -L- and -N-.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**E.g. LUNA(M) > ''luna'' /ˈluna/ "moon" (Spanish, Aragonese ''luna'', Catalan, Asturian ''lluna'' vs Portuguese ''lua'', Galician ''lúa'')
:::COLŌRE(M) > ''color'' /koˈloɾ/ "colour" (Spanish, Aragonese, Catalan ''color'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''cor'')
*Monophthongization of falling diphthongs.
**Shared with Spanish, Catalan, and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. AURU(M) > ''or'' /oɾ/ "gold" (Spanish, Aragonese ''oro'', Asturian ''oru'', Cataln ''or'' vs Galician/Portuguese, Mirandese ''ouro'')
:::E(G)O > ''yo'' /jo/ "I" (Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian ''yo'', Catalan ''jo'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''eu'', Mirandese/Leonese ''you'')
*-LT- (after U) and -CT- become /jt/ after stressed vowels and /tʃ/ after unstressed vowels.
**The outcome after unstressed vowels is shared with Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese, while the outcome after stressed vowels is shared with the remaining Iberian Romance languages (except Catalan in the case of -LT-).
**E.g. MULTU(M) > ''muit'' /mujt/ "much, many" (Galician ''moito'', Portuguese ''muito'' vs Spanish ''mucho'', Asturian ''munchu'', Catalan ''molt'')
:::LACTŪCA > ''lechuca'' /leˈtʃuka/ "lettuce" (Spanish ''lechuga'', Asturian ''llechuga'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''leituga'', Catalan ''lletuga'')
*Palatalization of -LI-, -C'L-, -T'L-, -G'L- to /ʎ/.
**Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. ŎCULU(M) > ''welh'' /weʎ/ "eye" (Portuguese ''olho'', Galician ''ollo'', Aragonese ''güello'', Catalan ''ull'', Mirandese ''uolho'' vs Spanish ''ojo'', Asturian ''güeyu'', Leonese ''güechu'')
*Palatalization of -LL- to /ʎ/.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**E.g. ILLA > ''elha'' /ˈeʎa/ "she" (Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian, Catalan ''ella'', Mirandese ''eilha'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''ela'')
*Palatalization of -NN- to /ɲ/.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**E.g. ANNU(M) > ''anh'' /aɲ/ "year" (Catalan ''any'', Spanish, Aragonese ''año'', Mirandese ''anho'', Asturian ''añu'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''ano'')
*-M'N- becomes /m/.
**Differs from Spanish.
**E.g. HOMINE(M) > ''weme'' /ˈweme/ "man" (Catalan, Asturian, Galician ''home'', Portuguese ''homem'' vs Spanish, Aragonese ''hombre'')
:::NOMEN > ''nueme'' /ˈnweme/ "name" (Galician/Portuguese ''nome'', Catalan, Aragonese ''nom'', Asturian ''ñome'' vs Spanish ''nombre'')
*Palatalization of -X-, -PS-, -SC- (the latter before front vowels) to /ʃ/.
**Differs from Spanish.
**E.g. COXA > ''cuexa'' /ˈkweʃa/ "thigh" (Catalan, Aragonese ''cuixa'', Galician/Portuguese ''coxa'', Mirandese ''coixa'' vs Spanish ''cuja'')
*Preservation of initial CL-, FL-, PL-.
**Shared with Catalan and Aragonese.
**E.g. CLAMARE > ''clamar'' /klaˈmaɾ/ "to call" (Catalan, Aragonese ''clamar'' vs Spanish, Asturian ''llamar'', Galician/Portuguese ''chamar''
*Preservation of intervocalic -T-, -P-, -C-.
**Shared with some Aragonese dialects.
**E.g. *SAPĒRE > ''saper'' /saˈpeɾ/ "to know" (Central Aragonese ''saper'' vs Catalan, Spanish, Galician/Portuguese, Asturian ''saber'')
*Insertion of (or, in some cases, preservation of) /j/ before or after a front vowel to avoid hiatus.
**Shared with Aragonese and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. CADERE > ''cayer'' /kaˈjeɾ/ "to fall" (Asturian, Aragonese ''cayer'' vs Spanish, Galician ''caer'', Portuguese ''cair'')
*Dropping of final -U(M) in many environments.
**Shared with Catalan.
**E.g. CATTU(M) > ''gat'' /ɡat/ "cat" (Catalan ''gat'' vs Asturian ''gatu'', Spanish, Galician/Portuguese ''gato'')
*Preservation of non-dropped final -U(M) as /u/.
**Shared with Astur-Leonese and Portuguese (though it is likely a secondary development in the latter).
**E.g. FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Asturian ''fierru'' vs Spanish ''hierro'', Aragonese ''fierro'', Catalan ''ferro'')
*Dropping of final -E(M) in many environments.
**Shared with Aragonese, Catalan, and (to some extent) Spanish.
**E.g. GRANDE(M) > ''grand'' /ɡɾan/ "big" (Aragonese ''gran'' vs Spanish, Aragonese, Galician/Portuguese ''grande'')
*Preservation of voiced fricatives/affricates.
**Shared with Catalan, Portuguese, and Mirandese.
**E.g. UNDECI(M) > ''onge'' /ˈondʒe/ "eleven" (Catalan, Portuguese, Mirandese ''onze'' vs Aragonese, Asturian, Spanish ''once'')
*Preservation of the distinction between /b/ and /v/.
**Shared with some varieties of Catalan and most varieties of Portuguese.
**E.g. HABĒRE > ''aver'' /aˈveɾ/ "to have" (Portuguese, Catalan ''haver'' vs Spanish, Asturian, Aragonese, Galician ''haber'')
*The following features are unique to Essanian among the Iberian Romance languages:
**-ST- becomes /θ/ - e.g. CŎSTA(M) > ''cueça'' /ˈkweθa/ "slope" (Spanish ''cuesta'').
**-STR- becomes /ð/ - e.g. STRATA(M) > ''zata'' "street" (Portuguese ''estrada'')
**-SC- (non-palatalized) and -SP- become /ʃ/ - e.g. SPATULA(M) > ''xalha'' /ˈʃaʎa/ "shoulder" (Catalan ''espatlla''); SCHOLA(M) > ''xuela'' /ˈʃwela/ "school" (Spanish ''escuela'').
**Palatalization of C (before front vowels) and -TI- (before vowels) to /tʃ/ - e.g. RATIŌNE(M) > ''rachón'' /raˈtʃon/ "reason" (Spanish ''razón'').
**Insertion of /w/ before or after a rounded vowel to avoid hiatus - e.g. TUA(M) > ''tuwa'' /ˈtuwa/ "your" (Portuguese ''tua'').
**Preservation of W- in loanwords - e g. WARDARE > ''wardar'' /waɾˈdaɾ/ "to guard" (Aragonese ''guardar'').
 
====Morphological====
*Pronouns and adjectives form a neuter in ''-o''
**Shared with Asturian.
*Words ending in ''-a'' form their plural in ''-es''.
**Shared with Asturian and Catalan.
*Words ending in ''-u'' form their plural in ''-os''.
**Shared with Asturian.
*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''.
**Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan.
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/ (through intermediate stage /ts/).
**Shared with Aragonese.
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
**Shared with Aragonese, which preserves it as /β/.
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Intonation
Intonation
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===Orthography===
===Orthography===
====Latin orthography====
====Latin orthography====
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| word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩
| word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩
| [b]
| [b]
|
| ''buen'' "good"; ''ambos'' "both"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere (i.e. after a vowel, even across a word boundary, or after any consonant other than ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩)
| elsewhere (i.e. after a vowel, even across a word boundary, or after any consonant other than ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩)
| [β̞]
| [β̞]
|
| ''sobre'' "over"
|
|
|-
|-
| utterance-final
| utterance-final
| [p]
| [p] or [ɸ̞]
|
| ''ob'' "where"
|
|
|-
|-
| rowspan="3"| '''c'''
| rowspan="4"| '''c'''
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
| [tʃ] or [ʃ] (depending on the dialect)
| [tʃ] or [ʃ] (depending on the dialect)
|
| ''ceto'' "early; in the morning"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| elsewhere
| [k]
| [k]
|
| ''canta'' "song"
|
|
|-
|-
| before voiced consonants
| before voiced consonants
| [ɣ˕]
| [ɣ̞]
| ''anécdota'' "anecdote"
|
|
|-
| in the cluster ⟨ct⟩
| [ɣ̞] or [x̞]
| ''actual'' "current"
|
|
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [tʃ] or [ʃ] (depending on the dialect)
| [tʃ] or [ʃ] (depending on the dialect)
|
| ''xuchar'' "to listen"
|
|
|-
|-
| '''ç'''
| '''ç'''
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [θ] or [s] (depending on the dialect)
| [θ], [s], or [tʃ] (depending on the dialect)
|
| ''cueça'' "slope"
|
|
|-
|-
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| word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨l⟩ or ⟨n⟩
| word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨l⟩ or ⟨n⟩
| [d̪]
| [d̪]
|
| ''dar'' "to give"; ''caldu'' "hot"
|
|
|-
|-
| after ⟨n⟩ word-finally
| after ⟨n⟩ word-finally
| Ø
| Ø
|
| ''mond'' "world"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| elsewhere
| [ð̞]
| [ð̞]
|
| ''modos'' "ways, modes"
|
|
|-
|-
| utterance-final
| utterance-final
| [t̪]
| [t̪] or [θ̞]
|
| ''mod'' "way, mode"
|
|
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [f]
| [f]
|
| ''formica'' "ant"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| [dʒ]
| [dʒ]
|
| ''germán'' "brother"
|
|
|-
|-
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| [ʒ]
| [ʒ]
|
| ''viage'' "journey"
|
|
|-
|-
| not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| [ɡ]
| [ɡ]
|
| ''gat'' "cat"
|
|
|-
|-
| not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| [ɣ˕]
| [ɣ˕]
|
| ''suegru'' "father-in-law"
|
|
|-
|-
| utterance-final
| utterance-final
| [k]
| [k] or [x̞]
|
| ''zigzag'' "zigzag"
|
| In loanwords.
|-
|-
| '''gh'''
| '''gh'''
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ʕ]
| [ʕ]
|
| ''ghada'' "tradition, custom"
| In Arabic loanwords
| In Arabic loanwords
|-
|-
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| before ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| before ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| [ɡw]
| [ɡw]
|
| ''lengua'' "tongue, language"
|
|
|-
|-
| before ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, and not in the above contexts
| before ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, and not in the above contexts
| [ɣ˕w]
| [ɣ̞w]
|
| ''Paraguay'' "Paraguay"
|
| In loanwords.
|-
|-
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| [ɡ]
| [ɡ]
|
| ''guitarra'' "guitar"
|
|
|-
|-
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| [ɣ˕]
| [ɣ̞]
|
| ''magues'' "witches, female Zoroastrians"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| [ɡw]
| [ɡw]
|
| ''lengües'' "tongues, languages"
|
|
|-
|-
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts
| [ɣ˕w]
| [ɣ̞w]
|
| ''següey'' "Segway"
|
| In loanwords.
|-
|-
| rowspan="2"|'''h'''
| rowspan="2"|'''h'''
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [h] or [ħ] or [x]
| [h] or [ħ] or [x]
|
| ''horru'' "free"
| Generally occurs in loanwords.
| Generally occurs in loanwords.
|-
|-
| everywhere (rare)
| everywhere (rare)
| Ø
| Ø
|
| ''honestu'' "honest"
| Occurs in loanwords where the letter is silent in the original language. May be pronounced [h] as a spelling pronunciation.
| Occurs in loanwords where the letter is silent in the original language. May be pronounced [h] as a spelling pronunciation.
|-
|-
| rowspan="2"| '''j'''
| rowspan="3"| '''j'''
| either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩
| [dʒ]
| [dʒ]
|
| ''ja'' "already"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| elsewhere
| [ʒ]
| [ʒ]
| ''viajar'' "to travel"
|
|
|
|-
| utterance-final
| [tʃ] or [ʃ]
| ''alhaj'' "Hajj"
| In loanwords.
|-
|-
| '''k'''
| '''k'''
| rare; only occurs in a few loanwords and sensational spellings
| rare; only occurs in a few loanwords and sensational spellings
| [k]
| [k]
|
| ''kilogramu'' "kilogram"
|
| Can generally be replaced with ''c'' or ''qu''.
|-
|-
| '''l'''
| '''l'''
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [l]
| [l]
|
| ''lengua'' "tongue, language"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 323: Line 431:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ʎ]
| [ʎ]
|
| ''vielh'' "old"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 329: Line 437:
| everywhere except word-finally
| everywhere except word-finally
| [m]
| [m]
|
| ''mesa'' "table"
|
|
|-
|-
| word-final
| word-final
| [n] or [ŋ] (depending on the dialect)
| [n] or [ŋ] (depending on the dialect)
|
| ''Adam'' "Adam"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 340: Line 448:
| everywhere but before other consonants and word-finally
| everywhere but before other consonants and word-finally
| [n]
| [n]
|
| ''manes'' "hands"
|
|
|-
|-
| before other consonants
| before other consonants
| [m]; [ɱ]; [n]; [n̪]; [ɲ]; [ŋ]
| [m]; [ɱ]; [n]; [n̪]; [ɲ]; [ŋ]
|
| ''lengua'' "tongue, language"
| Assimilates to the following consonant’s place of articulation.
| Assimilates to the following consonant’s place of articulation.
|-
|-
| word-finally
| word-finally
|[n] or [ŋ] (depending on the dialect)
|[n] or [ŋ] (depending on the dialect)
|
| ''man'' "hand"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 356: Line 464:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| ''suenh'' "sleep, dream"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 362: Line 470:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [p]
| [p]
|
| ''padre'' "father"
|
|
|-
|-
| in the consonant cluster ⟨pt⟩
| in the consonant cluster ⟨pt⟩
| [β̞]
| [β̞] or [ɸ̞]
|
| ''aptu'' "apt"
|
|
|-
| '''q'''
| everywhere
| [k]
| ''Qátar'' "Qatar"
| In loanwords.
|-
|-
| rowspan="2"| '''qu'''
| rowspan="2"| '''qu'''
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
| before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
| [k]
| [k]
|
| ''que'' "what"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| elsewhere
| [kw]
| [kw]
|
| ''quatro'' "four"
|
|
|-
|-
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| only occurs before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
| only occurs before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
| [kw]
| [kw]
|
| ''aqües'' "waters"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 391: Line 505:
or after ⟨l⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, or ⟨z⟩; in emphatic speech may also be used instead of [ɾ] in syllable-final (especially before ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, or ⟨d⟩) and word-final positions (before pause or consonant-initial words only)
or after ⟨l⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, or ⟨z⟩; in emphatic speech may also be used instead of [ɾ] in syllable-final (especially before ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, or ⟨d⟩) and word-final positions (before pause or consonant-initial words only)
| [r]
| [r]
|
| ''rat'' "rat"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| elsewhere
| [ɾ]
| [ɾ]
|
| ''plorar'' "to cry"
|
|
|-
|-
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| only occurs between vowels
| only occurs between vowels
| [r]
| [r]
|
| ''carru'' "car"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 408: Line 522:
| word-initial, morpheme initial, before a voiceless consonant, or utterance-final
| word-initial, morpheme initial, before a voiceless consonant, or utterance-final
| [s]
| [s]
|
| ''salá'' "prayer"
|
|
|-
|-
| everywhere else
| everywhere else
| [z]
| [z]
|
| ''mesa'' "table"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 419: Line 533:
| only occurs between vowels
| only occurs between vowels
| [s]
| [s]
|
| ''passar'' "to pass"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 425: Line 539:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [t̪]
| [t̪]
|
| ''tu'' "you"
|
|
|-
|-
| before voiced consonants
| before voiced consonants
| [ð̞]
| [ð̞]
|
| ''atmósfera'' "atmosphere"
|
|  
|-
|-
| after ⟨n⟩ word-finally
| after ⟨n⟩ word-finally
| Ø
| Ø
|
| ''vient'' "wind"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 441: Line 555:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [v]
| [v]
|
| ''vient'' "wind"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 447: Line 561:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [w]
| [w]
|
| ''welh'' "eye"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 453: Line 567:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ʃ]
| [ʃ]
|
| ''xuchar'' "to listen"
|
|
|-
|-
| between vowels and word-finally
| between vowels and word-finally
| [ks]
| [ks]
|
| ''toxina'' "toxin"
| In words of Latin or Greek origin; may be replaced with ⟨cs⟩ or ⟨s⟩ (with the associated pronunciation change).
| In words of Latin or Greek origin; may be replaced with ⟨cs⟩ or ⟨s⟩ (with the associated pronunciation change).
|-
|-
| before a consonant
| before a consonant
| [ks] or [s]
| [ks] or [s]
|
| ''textu'' "text"
| In words of Latin or Greek origin; may be replaced with ⟨s⟩ (and pronounced accordingly).
| In loanwords; may be replaced with ⟨s⟩ (and pronounced accordingly).
|-
|-
| in the prefix ''ex-''
| in the prefix ''ex-''
| [z]; [s] before a plosive
| [z]; [s] before a plosive
|
| ''examen'' "exam"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 474: Line 588:
| everywhere except when acting as a vowel
| everywhere except when acting as a vowel
| [j]
| [j]
|
| ''yerva'' "grass"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 480: Line 594:
| utterance-final or before a voiceless consonant
| utterance-final or before a voiceless consonant
| [θ] or [s] (depending on the dialect)
| [θ] or [s] (depending on the dialect)
|
| ''arroz'' "rice"
|
|
|-
|-
| everywhere else
| everywhere else
| [ð] or [z] (depending on the dialect)
| [ð] or [z] (depending on the dialect)
|
| ''zagal'' "boy"
|
|
|}
|}
Line 499: Line 613:
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[ä]
| style="text-align:center;"|[ä]
|  
| ''gat'' "cat"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| '''e'''
| '''e'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[e̞]
| style="text-align:center;"|[e̞]
|  
| ''mesa'' "table"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| '''i'''
| '''i'''
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|[i]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|[i]
|
| ''felich'' "happy"
|
|
|-
|-
| '''y'''
| '''y'''
|
| ''y'' "and"
| Rare. Only commonly used as a vowel in the conjunction ''y'' and the homophonous adverbial pronoun.
| Rare. Only commonly used as a vowel in the conjunction ''y'' and the homonymous adverbial pronoun.
|-
|-
| '''o'''
| '''o'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[o̞]
| style="text-align:center;"|[o̞]
|
| ''ora'' "hour, time"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| '''u'''
| '''u'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
|  
| ''amicu'' "friend"
|
|
|}
|}
Line 536: Line 650:
|-
|-
| '''i'''
| '''i'''
| {{angbr|i}} before a vowel
| ⟨i⟩ before a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
|
| ''bien'' "well"; ''viage'' "journey"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''u'''
|'''u'''
| {{angbr|u}} before a vowel (but silent in {{angbr|qu}} and {{angbr|gu}} before an {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}})
|⟨u⟩ before a vowel (but silent in ⟨qu⟩ and ⟨gu⟩ before an ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩)
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
|
| ''cueça'' "slope"; ''quatro'' "four"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''ü'''
|'''ü'''
| {{angbr|ü}} before a vowel (only used in {{angbr|qü}} and {{angbr|gü}} before an {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}})
| ⟨ü⟩ before a vowel (only used in ⟨qü⟩ and ⟨gü⟩ before an ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩)
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
|
| ''lengües'' "tongues, languages"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 556: Line 670:
|-
|-
| '''i'''
| '''i'''
| {{angbr|i}} after a vowel
| ⟨i⟩ after a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
|
| ''feit'' "made"
|
|
|-
|-
| '''y'''
| '''y'''
| {{angbr|y}} after a vowel
| ⟨y⟩ after a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
|
| ''rey'' "king"
| Almost always word-final. ''-iy'' is pronounced [i].
| Almost always word-final. ⟨-iy⟩ is pronounced [i].
|-
|-
|'''u'''
|'''u'''
| {{angbr|u}} after a vowel
| ⟨u⟩ after a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
|
| ''autobús'' "bus"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''w'''
|'''w'''
| {{angbr|w}} after a vowel
| ⟨w⟩ after a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
|
| ''ochaw'' "eighth (fraction)"
| Almost always word-final. ''-uw'' is pronounced [w].
| Almost always word-final. ⟨-uw⟩ is pronounced [w].
|}
|}
'''Note:'''
'''Notes:'''


''iu'' and ''ui'' are ambiguous, since they may either be used for rising diphthongs (/ju/ and /wi/ respectively) or falling diphthongs (/iw/ and /uj/ respectively). In most cases, they represent rising diphthongs unless followed by ''t''. ''iw'' and ''uy'' always represent falling diphthongs.
#⟨iu⟩ and ⟨ui⟩ are ambiguous, since they may either be used for rising diphthongs (/ju/ and /wi/ respectively) or falling diphthongs (/iw/ and /uj/ respectively). In most cases, they represent rising diphthongs unless followed by ⟨t⟩. ⟨iw⟩ and ⟨uy⟩ always represent falling diphthongs.
#When a vowel (almost always ⟨e⟩) is both preceded and followed by a glide, a triphthong is formed - e.g. ''nueit, nueu, buey''.


=====Stress=====
=====Stress=====
Line 607: Line 722:
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
===Phonological history===
*Final vowel dropping:
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, t, z''.
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''.
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''.
**Sometimes vowels are dropped irregularly.
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Comparison of Essanian to other Iberian Romance languages
|-
! Latin
! Galician
! Asturian
! Spanish
! Aragonese
! Essanian
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4|'''Diphthongization of <small>Ŏ</small> & <small>Ĕ</small>'''
|-
| {{sc|PŎRTA(M)}} <small>''(door)''</small>
| ''porta''
| ''puerta''
| ''puerta''
| ''puerta''
| ''puerta''
|-
| {{sc|ŎCULU(M)}} <small>''(eye)''</small>
| ''ollo''
| ''güeyu''<br />''güechu''
| ''ojo''
| ''güello''
| ''welh''
|-
| {{sc|TĔMPUS, TĔMPŎR-}} <small>''(time)''</small>
| ''tempo''
| ''tiempu''
| ''tiempo''
| ''tiempo''
| ''tiempu''
|-
| {{sc|TĔRRA(M)}} <small>''(land)''</small>
| ''terra''
| ''tierra''
| ''tierra''
| ''tierra''
| ''tierra''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4| '''<small>F-</small> (initial position)'''
|-
| {{sc|FACĔRE}} <small>''(to do)''</small>
| ''facer''
| ''facer'', ''faer'', ''fer'', ''ḥacer''
| ''hacer''
| ''fer''
| ''far'', ''fazer''
|-
| {{sc|FĔRRU(M)}} <small>''(iron)''</small>
| ''ferro''
| ''fierru'', ''ḥierru''
| ''hierro''
| ''fierro''
| ''fierru''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4| '''<small>L-</small> (initial position)'''
|-
| [[lares|{{sc|LARE(M)]]}} <small>''(home)''</small>
| ''lar''
| ''llar''<br />''ḷḷar''
| ''lar''
|
| ''lar''
|-
| {{sc|LŬPU(M)}} <small>''(wolf)''</small>
| ''lobo''
| ''llobu''<br />''ḷḷobu''
| ''lobo''
|
|
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4|'''<small>N-</small> (initial position)'''
|-
| {{sc|NATIVITĀTE(M)}} <small>''(Christmas)''</small>
| ''nadal''
| ''nadal''<br />''ñavidá''
| ''navidad''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4| '''Palatalization of <small>PL-, CL-, FL-</small>'''
|-
| {{sc|PLĀNU(M)}} <small>''(plane)''</small>
| ''chan''
| ''ḷḷanu''<br />''llanu''
| ''llano''
|-
| {{sc|CLĀVE(M)}} <small>''(key)''</small>
| ''chave''
| ''ḷḷave''<br />''llave''
| ''llave''
|-
| {{sc|FLĂMMA(M)}} <small>''(flame)''</small>
| ''chama''
| ''ḷḷama''<br />''llama''
| ''llama''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4|'''Rising diphthongs'''
|-
| {{sc|CAUSA(M)}} <small>''(cause)''</small>
| ''cousa''
| ''co(u)sa''
| ''cosa''
|-
| {{sc|FERRARĬU(M)}} <small>''(smith)''</small>
| ''ferreiro''
| ''ferre(i)ru''
| ''herrero''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4|'''Palatalization of <small>-CT-</small> & <small>-LT-</small>'''
|-
| {{sc|FĂCTU(M)}} <small>''(fact)''</small>
| ''feito''
| ''feitu''<br />''fechu''
| ''hecho''
|-
| {{sc|NŎCTE(M)}} <small>''(night)''</small>
| ''noite''
| ''nueite''<br />''nueche''
| ''noche''
|-
| {{sc|MŬLTU(M)}} <small>''(much)''</small>
| ''muito''
| ''muncho''
| ''mucho''
|-
| {{sc|AUSCULTĀRE}} <small>''(to listen)''</small>
| ''escoitar''
| ''escuchar''
| ''escuchar''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4|'''Group <small>-M'N-</small>'''
|-
| {{sc|HŎMINE(M)}} <small>''(man)''</small>
| ''home''
| ''home''
| ''hombre''
|-
| {{sc|FĂME(M)}} <small>''(hunger, famine)''</small>
| ''fame''
| ''fame''
| ''hambre''
|-
| {{sc|LŪMEN, LŪMĬN-}} <small>''(fire)''</small>
| ''lume''
| ''llume''<br />''ḷḷume''
| ''lumbre''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4| '''<small>-L-</small> intervocalic'''
|-
| {{sc|GĔLU(M)}} <small>''(ice)''</small>
| ''xeo''
| ''xelu''
| ''hielo''
|-
| {{sc|FILICTU(M)}} <small>''(fern)''</small>
| ''fieito''
| ''felechu''
| ''helecho''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4| '''-ll-'''
|-
| {{sc|CASTĔLLU(M)}} <small>''(castle)''</small>
| ''castelo''
| ''castiellu''<br />''castieḷḷu''
| ''castillo''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4| '''<small>-N-</small> intervocalic'''
|-
| {{sc|RĀNA(M)}} <small>''(frog)''</small>
| ''ra''
| ''rana''
| ''rana''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4|'''Group <small>-LY-</small>'''
|-
| {{sc|MULĬERE(M)}} <small>''(woman)''</small>
| ''muller''
| ''muyer''
| ''mujer''
|-
| align="left" style="background:#efefef; color:Black" colspan=4|'''Groups <small>-C'L-, -T'L-, -G'L-</small>'''
|-
| {{sc|NOVACŬLA(M)}} <small>''(penknife)''</small>
| ''navalla''
| ''navaya''
| ''navaja''
|-
| {{sc|VETŬLU(M)}} <small>''(old)''</small>
| ''vello''
| ''vieyu''
| ''viejo''
|-
| {{sc|TEGŬLA(M)}} <small>''(tile)''</small>
| ''tella''
| ''teya''
| ''teja''
|}-->
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
Line 735: Line 1,055:


<sup><small>5</small></sup> Post-verbal after non-finite form (infinitive, participles, etc.).
<sup><small>5</small></sup> Post-verbal after non-finite form (infinitive, participles, etc.).
Note that post-verbal clitic pronouns are always separated from the verb with a hyphen.


The neuter gender is used to refer to abstract ideas, infinitives, ''que'' clauses, inanimate interrogatives and indefinites, and similar.
The neuter gender is used to refer to abstract ideas, infinitives, ''que'' clauses, inanimate interrogatives and indefinites, and similar.
Line 744: Line 1,066:
*''y'', <i>b'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-y'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''y''
*''y'', <i>b'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-y'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''y''
*''en'', <i>n'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-ne'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''en''
*''en'', <i>n'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-ne'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''en''
Note that when post-verbal, the clitic pronouns are separated from the verb with a hyphen.
When both adverbial object pronouns are used at once, they combine as <i>en b'</i> preverbally before vowels and ''n'y'' otherwise.
When both adverbial object pronouns are used at once, they combine as <i>en b'</i> preverbally before vowels and ''n'y'' otherwise.
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Gender====
====Gender====
Line 750: Line 1,075:


====Number====
====Number====
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also be used in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic.
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also occur in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic.
=====Regular plurals=====
====='''Regular plurals'''=====
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows:
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
Line 783: Line 1,108:
|}
|}


=====Irregular plurals=====
====='''Irregular plurals'''=====
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals.
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals.


Line 816: Line 1,141:
The comparative of adjectives ("more ___") is formed by placing ''plus'' "more" or ''menos'' "less" before the adjective for the positive and negative comparatives respectively.
The comparative of adjectives ("more ___") is formed by placing ''plus'' "more" or ''menos'' "less" before the adjective for the positive and negative comparatives respectively.


The following adjectives have irregular comparatives:
The following adjectives have irregular positive comparatives:
*''buen'' "good" → ''melhor'' "better"
*''buen'' "good" → ''melhor'' "better"
*''mal'' "bad" → ''peyor'' "worse"
*''mal'' "bad" → ''peyor'' "worse"
*''joven'' "young" → ''menor'' "younger"
*''vielh'' "old" → ''mayor'' "older"
*''muit'' "much, many" → ''plus'' "more"
*''muit'' "much, many" → ''plus'' "more"
*''pocu'' "little, few" → ''menos'' "less, fewer"
*''pocu'' "little, few" → ''menos'' "less, fewer"
*''joven'' "young", ''cicu'' "small" → ''menor'' "younger, smaller"
*''vielh'' "old", ''grand'' "large" → ''mayor'' "older, larger"
The last four (''joven, cicu, vielh, grand'') can alternatively use regular comparatives.


The superlative ("most _____") is formed by placing the definite article before the corresponding comparative.
The superlative ("most _____") is formed by placing the definite article before the corresponding comparative.
Line 828: Line 1,154:
====Absolute Superlative====
====Absolute Superlative====
In addition to the regular superlative, there is an absolute superlative formed with the suffix ''-íssimu'' (declined as a regular adjective). It means "very ______" or "extremely _______".
In addition to the regular superlative, there is an absolute superlative formed with the suffix ''-íssimu'' (declined as a regular adjective). It means "very ______" or "extremely _______".
There are some irregular absolute superlatives. In all cases, the regular forms may also be used.
*''buen'' "good" -> ''óptimu'' "very good, optimal"
*''mal'' "bad" -> ''péssimu'' "very bad"
*''grand'' "large" -> ''máximu'' "very large"
*''cicu'' "small" -> ''mínimu'' "very small"
*''altu'' "high" -> ''supremu'' "very high"
*''baxu'' "low" -> ''ínfimu'' "very low"


===Adverbs===
===Adverbs===
Line 848: Line 1,182:
*''muito'' "a lot" → ''plus'' "more"
*''muito'' "a lot" → ''plus'' "more"
*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Essanian numerals
|-
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| zero || zerén || —
|-
! 1
| un, una, uno || primer || —
|-
! 2
| dos, duwes || second || meyu
|-
! 3
| tres || tercer || tierchu
|-
! 4
| quatro || quartu || quartu
|-
! 5
| cinco || quint || quint
|-
! 6
| seis || sieç || sieç
|-
! 7
| siet || setén || setaw
|-
! 8
| weito || océn || ochaw
|-
! 9
| nueu || novén || novaw
|-
! 10
| diech || decén || dechaw
|-
! 11
| onge || ongén || onjaw
|-
! 12
| doge || dogén || dojaw
|-
! 13
| trege || tregén || trejaw
|-
! 14
| quatorge || quatorgén || quatorjaw
|-
! 15
| quinge || quingén || quinjas
|-
! 16
| sege || segén || sejas
|-
! 17
| deci-siet || deci-setén || deci-setaw
|-
! 18
| deci-weito || deci-océn || deci-ochaw
|-
! 19
| deci-nueu || deci-novén || deci-novaw
|-
! 20
| vint || vintén || vintaw
|-
! 21
| vinti-ún || vinti-unén || vinti-unaw
|-
! 30
| trenta || trentén || trentaw
|-
! 40
| quaranta || quarantén || quarantaw
|-
! 50
| cinquanta || cinquantén || cinquantas
|-
! 60
| sexanta || sexantén || sexantaw
|-
! 70
| setanta || setantén || setantaw
|-
! 80
| ochanta || ochantén || ochantaw
|-
! 90
| novanta || novantén || novantaw
|-
! 100
| cient || centén || centaw
|-
! 200
| dos-cientos || dos-centén || dos-centaw
|-
! 1000
| mil || milén || milaw
|-
! 2000
| dos-mil || dos-milén || dos-milaw
|-
! 10⁶
| milhón || milhonén || milhonaw
|-
! 2×10⁶
| duwes-milhones || duwes-milhonén || duwes-milionaw
|-
! 10⁹
| milhardu || milhardén || milhardaw
|-
! 10¹²
| bilhón || bilhonén || bilhonaw
|}
===Verbs===
====Tenses and moods====
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods:
*Indicative mood (''el mod indicativu''):
**Simple tenses (''tiempos simples''):
***Simple present (''el present simple'')
***Preterite (''el passat perfeit'')
***Imperfect (''el passat imperfeit'')
***Simple future (''el futur simple'')
***Simple conditional (''el condichonal simple'')
***Simple pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit simple'')
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''):
***Present perfect (''el passat compueç'')
***Compound pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç'')
***Future perfect (''el futur compueç'')
***Conditional perfect (''el condichonal compueç'')
*Subjunctive mood (''el mod subjuntivu'')
**Simple tenses (''tiempos simples''):
***Present subjunctive (''el present del subjuntivu'')
***Imperfect subjunctive (''el imperfeit del subjuntivu'')
***Future subjunctive (''el futur del subjuntivu'')
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''):
***Perfect subjunctive (''el passat compueç del subjuntivu'')
***Pluperfect subjunctive (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç del subjuntivu'')
***Future perfect subjunctive (''el futur compueç del subjuntivu'')
*Imperative mood (''el mod imperativu'')
**Affirmative imperative (''l'imperativu afirmativu'')
**Negative imperative (''l'imperativu negativu'')
*Non-finite forms (''les formes nominales''):
**Infinitive (''l'infinitivu'')
**Participle (''el participiu')
**Gerund (''el gerundiu'')
For convenience, each tense/mood combination will be referred to in this article as a "tense".
====Verb classes====
There are three verb classes:
*First conjugation/''-ar'' verbs (''la conjugachón primera'')
*Second conjugation/''-er'' verbs (''la conjugachón seconda'')
*Third conjugation/''-ir'' verbs (''la conjugachón tercera'')
There are irregular verbs in each class.
====Verb conjugation====
Note that second person polite forms always take third person verb conjugations
====='''Non-finite forms'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of regular verbs
! Form !! ''-ar'' verbs !! ''-er'' verbs !! ''-ir'' verbs
|-
! Infinitive
| -ar || -er || -ir
|-
! Participle
| -at/-atos, -ata/-ates, -ato
| colspan="2"|-it/-itos, -ita/-ites, -ito¹
|-
! Gerundive
| -ando || -endo || -indo
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles, which may or may not coexist with regular forms.
<!--
² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.-->
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ar'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| -o || -ava || -é || -aré || -areva || -era
|-
! 2S
| -es || -aves || -és || -arás || -areves || -eres
|-
! 3S
| -a || -ava || -ó || -ará || -areva || -era
|-
! 1P
| -án || -aven || -én || -arén || -areven || -eren
|-
! 2P
| -az || -ávez || -ez || -arez || -arévez || -érez
|-
! 3P
| -en || -aven || -ón || -arán || -areven || -eren
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-er'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| -o || -eva || -í || -eré || -ereva || -iera
|-
! 2S
| -es || -eves || -iés || -erás || -ereves || -ieres
|-
! 3S
| -(e)¹ || -eva || -ió || -erá || -ereva || -iera
|-
! 1P
| -én || -even || -ién || -erén || -ereven || -ieren
|-
! 2P
| -ez || -évez || -iez || -erez || -erévez || -iérez
|-
! 3P
| -en || -even || -ión || -erán || -ereven || -ieren
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ir'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| -o || -iva || -í || -iré || -ireva || -iera
|-
! 2S
| -es || -ives || -iés || -irás || -ireves || -ieres
|-
! 3S
| -(e)¹ || -iva || -ió || -irá || -ireva || -iera
|-
! 1P
| -ín || -iven || -ién || -irén || -ireven || -ieren
|-
! 2P
| -iz || -ívez || -iez || -irez || -irévez || -iérez
|-
! 3P
| -en || -iven || -ión || -irán || -ireven || -ieren
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants.
<!--
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.-->
====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple subjunctive tenses (regular ''-ar'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future
|-
! 1S
| -e || -esse || -ere
|-
! 2S
| -as || -essas || -eras
|-
! 3S
| -e || -esse || -ere
|-
! 1P
| -én || -essan || -eran
|-
! 2P
| -ez || -éssaz || -éraz
|-
! 3P
| -an || -essan || -eran
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple subjunctive tenses (regular ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future
|-
! 1S
| -a || -iesse || -iere
|-
! 2S
| -as || -iessas || -ieras
|-
! 3S
| -a || -iesse || -iere
|-
! 1P
| -án || -iessan || -ieran
|-
! 2P
| -az || -iéssaz || -iéraz
|-
! 3P
| -an || -iessan || -ieran
|-
|}
====='''Imperative'''=====
*'''Affirmative:'''
**'''2S:''' Same as 3S present indicative.
**'''2P:''' Same as infinitive, with final ''-r'' replaced with ''-t''.
**'''Other persons:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
*'''Negative:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
====='''Compound tenses'''=====
Compound tenses are formed with the verb ''aver'' "to have" followed by the past participle. They differ from each other according to the tense of the auxiliary verb.
*Non-finite forms:
**Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect gerundive: ''avendo'' + participle
*Indicative:
**Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle
**Compound pluperfect: imperfect of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect: future of ''aver'' + participle
**Conditional perfect: conditional of ''aver'' + participle
*Subjunctive:
**Perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
<!---
====='''Periphrastic tenses'''=====
In addition to the usual simple and compound tenses, there are additional periphrastic tenses formed with auxiliary verbs. These can themselves take any simple or compound tense.-->
====='''Passive'''=====
Formed with the appropriate conjugation of ''ser'' with the appropriately declined form of the past participle.
It can also be used as a pseudopassive, especially with intransitive verbs. In this case, the participle is always in the neuter.
====Irregular verbs====
====='''General notes'''=====
*Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include:
**''-o-'' > ''-ue-''
**''-e-'' > ''-ie-''
**''-ch-'' > ''-it-''
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply.
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' (usually formed by contraction). This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future.
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions):
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Person/Number !! Preterite ending
|-
!1S
| -i
|-
! 2S
| -es
|-
!3S
| -o
|-
!1P
| -én
|-
!2P
| -ez
|-
!3P
| -on
|-
|}
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-n'' from the 1P preterite indicative and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant.
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks
|-
| /k/
| qu || c ||
|-
| /tʃ/
| c || ch || Becomes ''-ch'' when word-final.
|-
| /ɡ ~ ɣ/
| gu || g ||
|-
| /dʒ ~ ʒ/
| g || j || This spelling change does not apply if the infinitive is spelled with ''-j-'', in which case ''-j-'' spelling is maintained in all forms.
|-
| /kw/
| qü || qu ||
|-
| /ɡw ~ ɣw/
| gü || gu ||
|}
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir, -ger, -gir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change.
<!--
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.-->
====='''The verb ''ser'' "to be"'''=====
The verb ''ser'' "to be" is highly irregular.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Infinitive
| ser
|-
! Participle
| sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito; <br/>
sut/sutos, suta/sutes, suto¹
|-
! Gerundive
| sendo
|-
|}
¹ Archaic
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| so || yera || fui || seré || sereva || fuera
|-
! 2S
| yes || yeres || fues || serás || sereves || fueres
|-
! 3S
| ye || yera || fue || será || sereva || fuera
|-
! 1P
| son/sen || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren
|-
! 2P
| soz/sez || yérez || fuez || serez || serévez || fuérez
|-
! 3P
| son || yeren || fuen || serán || sereven || fueren
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| siya || fuesse || fuere || —
|-
! 2S
| siyas || fuessas || fueras || sé
|-
! 3S
| siya || fuesse || fuere || siya
|-
! 1P
| siyán || fuessan || fueran || siyán
|-
! 2P
| siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz || set
|-
! 3P
| siyan || fuessan || fueran || siyan
|-
|}
====='''The verb ''aver'' "to be"'''=====
The verb ''aver'' "to have" is an important irregular verb.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Infinitive
| aver
|-
! Participle
| avit/avitos, avita/avites, avito; <br />
avut/avutos, avuta/avutes, avuto¹
|-
! Gerundive
| avendo
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite² !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect²
|-
! 1S
| e || eva || ovi || avré || avreva || overa
|-
! 2S
| as || eves || oves || avrás || avreves || overes
|-
! 3S
| a || eva || ovo || avrá || avreva || overa
|-
! 1P
| avén || even || ovén || avrén || avreven || overen
|-
! 2P
| avez || évez || ovez || avrez || avrévez || ovérez
|-
! 3P
| an || even || ovon || avrán || avreven || overen
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.² !! Future subj.² !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| aya || ovesse || overe || —
|-
! 2S
| ayas || ovessas || overas || a
|-
! 3S
| aya || ovesse || overe || aya
|-
! 1P
| ayán || ovessan || overan || ayán
|-
! 2P
| ayaz || ovéssaz || ovéraz || avet
|-
! 3P
| ayan || ovessan || overan || ayan
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ Participles in ''-ut-'' are considered archaic.
² The irregular preterite is shown here. A regular preterite (''aví, aviés,'' etc.) can alternatively be used, in which case the pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive likewise become regular.
====='''The verb ''andar'' "to go"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Infinitive
| andar
|-
! Participle
| andat/andatos, andata/andates, andato
|-
! Gerundive
| andando
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| vo || andava || andé || iré || ireva || andera
|-
! 2S
| vas || andaves || andés || irás || ireves || anderes
|-
! 3S
| va || andava || andó || irá || ireva || andera
|-
! 1P
| andán || andaven || andén || irén || ireven || anderen
|-
! 2P
| andaz || andávez || andez || irez || irévez || andérez
|-
! 3P
| van || andaven || andón || irán || ireven || anderen
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.³ !! Future subj.³ !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| vaya || andesse || andere || —
|-
! 2S
| vayas || andessas || anderas || anda
|-
! 3S
| vaya || andesse || andere || vaya
|-
! 1P
| vayán || andessan || anderan || vayán
|-
! 2P
| vayaz || andéssaz || andéraz || andat
|-
! 3P
| vayan || andessan || anderan || vayan
|-
|}
====='''The verb ''facer'' "to do, make"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Infinitive
| facer
|-
! Participle
| feit/feitos, feita/feites, feito
|-
! Gerundive
| facendo
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| faco || feva || fici || faré || fareva || ficera
|-
! 2S
| fas || feves || fices || farás || fareves || ficeres
|-
! 3S
| fa || feva || ficho || fará || fareva || ficera
|-
! 1P
| facén || feven || ficén || farén || fareven || ficeren
|-
! 2P
| facez || févez || ficez || farez || farévez || ficérez
|-
! 3P
| fan || feven || fichon || farán || fareven || ficeren
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || —
|-
! 2S
| facas || ficessas || ficeras || fa
|-
! 3S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || faca
|-
! 1P
| facán || ficessan || ficeran || facán
|-
! 2P
| facaz || ficéssaz || ficéraz || facet
|-
! 3P
| facan || ficessan || ficeran || facan
|-
|}
====='''The verb ''dicer'' "to say"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Infinitive
| dicer
|-
! Participle
| dit/ditos, dita/dites, dito
|-
! Gerundive
| dicendo
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| dico || diva || dixi || diré || direva || dixera
|-
! 2S
| dices || dives || dixes || dirás || direves || dixeres
|-
! 3S
| dich || diva || dixo || dirá || direva || dixera
|-
! 1P
| dicén || diven || dixén || dirén || direven || dixeren
|-
! 2P
| dicez || dívez || dixez || direz || dirévez || dixérez
|-
! 3P
| dicen || diven || dixon || dirán || direven || dixeren
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || —
|-
! 2S
| dicas || dixessas || dixeras || di
|-
! 3S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || dica
|-
! 1P
| dicán || dixessan || dixeran || dicán
|-
! 2P
| dicaz || dixéssaz || dixéraz || dicet
|-
! 3P
| dican || dixessan || dixeran || dican
|-
|}


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 856: Line 1,905:
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''Tiempu''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Les çachones''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| spring || el verán
|-
| summer || el çiw
|-
| fall || l'otonh
|-
| winter || l'inviernu
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Hijri Months - ''Los mesos hijrís''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| Muharram || muhárram
|-
| Safar || sáfar
|-
| Rabi' al-Awwal || rabigh primer
|-
| Rabi' ath-Thani || rabigh second
|-
| Jumada al-Ula || jumada primera
|-
| Jumada al-Akhirah || jumada seconda
|-
| Rajab || rájab
|-
| Sha'ban || xaghbán
|-
| Ramadan || ramadán
|-
| Shawwal || xawal
|-
| Dhu'l-Qa'dah || zulcaghda
|-
| Dhu'l-Hijjah || zulhaja
|-
|}-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Greogorian months - ''Los mesos gregorianos''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| January || gener
|-
| February || fevrer
|-
| March || marchu
|-
| April || abril
|-
| May || mayu
|-
| June || junh
|-
| July || julhet
|-
| August || agoç
|-
| September || setiembre
|-
| October || ochombre
|-
| November || noviembre
|-
| December || deciembre
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Los diyes de la semana''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| Sunday || ahad
|-
| Monday || eçnén
|-
| Tuesday || çalaça
|-
| Wednesday || arbagha
|-
| Thursday || hamís
|-
| Friday || jumgha
|-
| Saturday || sabte
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Los partes del diya''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| day || diya
|-
| dawn || alba
|-
| morning || manhana
|-
| noon || meyu-diya
|-
| afternoon || tarde
|-
| evening || serán
|-
| dusk || ocás
|-
| night || nueit
|-
| midnight || meya-nueit
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Unitás del tiempu''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| second || secondu
|-
| minute || minut
|-
| hour || ora; sagha (pl: saghat)
|-
| day || día
|-
| week || semana
|-
| month || mes
|-
| season || çachón
|-
| year || anh
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Adverbos temporales''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| now || agora
|-
| then || alora, entonce
|-
| recently, a short time ago || adiés
|-
| earlier || antes
|-
| soon, shortly || ayina
|-
| later || lueco
|-
| always || siempre
|-
| often || sovent
|-
| sometimes || a veces
|-
| rarely || raro
|-
| never || nunca; jamás; ábadan
|-
| ever || ábadan
|-
| still, yet || awún; ancora
|-
| already || ja
|-
| today || wey
|-
| tonight || ça nueit
|-
| yesterday || ayer
|-
| last night || anueit
|-
| tomorrow || cras
|-
| before yesterday || antes d'ayer
|-
| two nights ago || antes d'anueit
|-
| after tomorrow || depues de cras
|-
| this week || ça semana
|-
| last week || la semana passata
|-
| next week || la semana próxima
|-
|}
===Colours - ''Los colores''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''Los colores''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| white || blancu
|-
| grey || gris
|-
| black || negru
|-
| red || vermelh
|-
| orange || anaranjat
|-
| brown || caçanh
|-
| yellow || amarielh
|-
| green || verde
|-
| blue || azur
|-
| pink || rosat
|-
| purple || rox
|-
| golden || dorat
|-
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
'''La Declarachón Universala de los Dreitos Umanos'''
'''La Declarachón Universala de los Dreitos Umanos (Artícul 1)'''


''Totos los seros umanos naxen horros ed equalos en dinitá y dreitos. Dotatos de rachón y conxencha, deven comportar-sen los unos colos otros en ruhu de germantá.''
Totos los seros umanos naxen horros ed equalos en dinitá y dreitos. Son dotatos de rachón y conxencha, y deven comportar-sen los unos colos otros en ruhu de germantá.


/ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/
<p align=right>
توتس لس سارس أمانس نشن حرس ءاد ءاكوالس ءان دنتاه إي دريتس. سون دتاتس دا رچون إي كنشنچه، إي داڤن كمپرتارسن لس أونس كلس أترس ءان روح دا جرمانتاه
</p>
 
/ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/
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====Old Essanian====
Totos los seres humanos nascent ḥorros ed equales en dignitad i drehtos. Sont dotatos de rachón i consciencha, i devent comportar-se los unos con los outros en ruḥu de germantad.-->


==Other resources==
==Other resources==
Shariifka
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