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*Initial I-, DI- (before vowels), G- (before front vowels) become /dʒ ~ ʒ/.
*Initial I-, DI- (before vowels), G- (before front vowels) become /dʒ ~ ʒ/.
**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- become /j/.
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'')
**Differs from Catalan.
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- usually become /j/.
*Diphthongization of Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
**Differs from Catalan. However, there are many exceptions to this pattern.
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major'').
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''avui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe'').
:::FUGĪRE > ''fugir'' /fuˈʒiɾ/ "to flee" (Catalan, Portuguese ''fugir'', Asturian, Galician ''fuxir'' vs Spanish ''huir'').
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
**E.g. PŎNTE(M) > ''puent'' /pwen/ (Spanish, Asturian ''puente'' vs Catalan ''pont'', Galician/Portuguese ''ponte'')
:::ŎCTO > ''weito'' /ˈwejto/ "eight" (Aragonese ''ueit(o)'', obsolete Asturian ''uecho'', Catalan ''vuit'' vs Spanish ''ocho'', Galician/Portuguese ''oito'')
:::FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Spanish ''hierro'', Aragonese ''fierro'', Asturian ''fierru'' vs Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ''ferro'')
*Preservation of initial F-.
*Preservation of initial F-.
**Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ''ferro'', Aragonese ''fierro'' vs Spanish ''hierro'')
*Preservation of initial L-.
*Preservation of initial L-.
**Differs from Astur-Leonese and Catalan.
**Differs from Astur-Leonese and Catalan.
**E.g. LUNA(M) > ''luna'' /ˈluna/ (Spanish, Aragonese ''luna'', Portuguese ''lua'' vs Catalan, Asturian ''lluna'')
*Preservation of initial N-.
*Preservation of initial N-.
**Differs from some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**Differs from some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. *NARICE(M) > ''narich'' /naˈɾitʃ/ "nose" (Spanish, Galician/Portuguese, Aragonese ''nariz'', Catalan ''nariu'' vs Asturian ''ñariz'')
*Preservation of intervocalic -L- and -N-.
*Preservation of intervocalic -L- and -N-.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**E.g. LUNA(M) > ''luna'' /ˈluna/ "moon" (Spanish, Aragonese ''luna'', Catalan, Asturian ''lluna'' vs Portuguese ''lua'', Galician ''lúa'')
:::COLŌRE(M) > ''color'' /koˈloɾ/ "colour" (Spanish, Aragonese, Catalan ''color'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''cor'')
*Monophthongization of falling diphthongs.
*Monophthongization of falling diphthongs.
**Shared with Spanish, Catalan, and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**Shared with Spanish, Catalan, and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. AURU(M) > ''or'' /oɾ/ "gold" (Spanish, Aragonese ''oro'', Asturian ''oru'', Cataln ''or'' vs Galician/Portuguese, Mirandese ''ouro'')
:::E(G)O > ''yo'' /jo/ "I" (Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian ''yo'', Catalan ''jo'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''eu'', Mirandese/Leonese ''you'')
*-LT- (after U) and -CT- become /jt/ after stressed vowels and /tʃ/ after unstressed vowels.
*-LT- (after U) and -CT- become /jt/ after stressed vowels and /tʃ/ after unstressed vowels.
**The outcome after unstressed vowels is shared with Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese, while the outcome after stressed vowels is shared with the remaining Iberian Romance languages.
**The outcome after unstressed vowels is shared with Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese, while the outcome after stressed vowels is shared with the remaining Iberian Romance languages (except Catalan in the case of -LT-).
**E.g. MULTU(M) > ''muit'' /mujt/ "much, many" (Galician ''moito'', Portuguese ''muito'' vs Spanish ''mucho'', Asturian ''munchu'', Catalan ''molt'')
:::LACTŪCA > ''lechuca'' /leˈtʃuka/ "lettuce" (Spanish ''lechuga'', Asturian ''llechuga'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''leituga'', Catalan ''lletuga'')
*Palatalization of -LI-, -C'L-, -T'L-, -G'L- to /ʎ/.
*Palatalization of -LI-, -C'L-, -T'L-, -G'L- to /ʎ/.
**Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**E.g. ŎCULU(M) > ''welh'' /weʎ/ "eye" (Portuguese ''olho'', Galician ''ollo'', Aragonese ''güello'', Catalan ''ull'', Mirandese ''uolho'' vs Spanish ''ojo'', Asturian ''güeyu'', Leonese ''güechu'')
*Palatalization of -LL- to /ʎ/.
*Palatalization of -LL- to /ʎ/.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**E.g. ILLA > ''elha'' /ˈeʎa/ "she" (Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian, Catalan ''ella'', Mirandese ''eilha'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''ela'')
*Palatalization of -NN- to /ɲ/.
*Palatalization of -NN- to /ɲ/.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
**E.g. ANNU(M) > ''anh'' /aɲ/ "year" (Catalan ''any'', Spanish, Aragonese ''año'', Mirandese ''anho'', Asturian ''añu'' vs Galician/Portuguese ''ano'')
*-M'N- becomes /m/.
*-M'N- becomes /m/.
**Differs from Spanish.
**Differs from Spanish.
*Palatalization of -X-, -PS-, -SCj- to /ʃ/.
**E.g. HOMINE(M) > ''weme'' /ˈweme/ "man" (Catalan, Asturian, Galician ''home'', Portuguese ''homem'' vs Spanish, Aragonese ''hombre'')
:::NOMEN > ''nueme'' /ˈnweme/ "name" (Galician/Portuguese ''nome'', Catalan, Aragonese ''nom'', Asturian ''ñome'' vs Spanish ''nombre'')
*Palatalization of -X-, -PS-, -SC- (the latter before front vowels) to /ʃ/.
**Differs from Spanish.
**Differs from Spanish.
**E.g. COXA > ''cuexa'' /ˈkweʃa/ "thigh" (Catalan, Aragonese ''cuixa'', Galician/Portuguese ''coxa'', Mirandese ''coixa'' vs Spanish ''cuja'')
*Preservation of initial CL-, FL-, PL-.
*Preservation of initial CL-, FL-, PL-.
**Shared with Catalan.
**Shared with Catalan and Aragonese.
**E.g. CLAMARE > ''clamar'' /klaˈmaɾ/ "to call" (Catalan, Aragonese ''clamar'' vs Spanish, Asturian ''llamar'', Galician/Portuguese ''chamar''
*Preservation of intervocalic -T-, -P-, -C-.
*Preservation of intervocalic -T-, -P-, -C-.
**Shared with some Aragonese dialects.
**Shared with some Aragonese dialects.
**E.g. *SAPĒRE > ''saper'' /saˈpeɾ/ "to know" (Central Aragonese ''saper'' vs Catalan, Spanish, Galician/Portuguese, Asturian ''saber'')
*Insertion of (or, in some cases, preservation of) /j/ before or after a front vowel to avoid hiatus.
*Insertion of (or, in some cases, preservation of) /j/ before or after a front vowel to avoid hiatus.
**Shared with Aragonese and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
**Shared with Aragonese and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
*Dropping of final -U in masculine nouns.
**E.g. CADERE > ''cayer'' /kaˈjeɾ/ "to fall" (Asturian, Aragonese ''cayer'' vs Spanish, Galician ''caer'', Portuguese ''cair'')
*Dropping of final -U(M) in many environments.
**Shared with Catalan.
**Shared with Catalan.
*Preservation of non-dropped final -U in masculine nouns and adjectives as /u/.
**E.g. CATTU(M) > ''gat'' /ɡat/ "cat" (Catalan ''gat'' vs Asturian ''gatu'', Spanish, Galician/Portuguese ''gato'')
**Shared with Astur-Leonese and Galician/Portuguese (though it is likely a secondary development in the latter).
*Preservation of non-dropped final -U(M) as /u/.
*Dropping of final -E in many environments.
**Shared with Astur-Leonese and Portuguese (though it is likely a secondary development in the latter).
**E.g. FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Asturian ''fierru'' vs Spanish ''hierro'', Aragonese ''fierro'', Catalan ''ferro'')
*Dropping of final -E(M) in many environments.
**Shared with Aragonese, Catalan, and (to some extent) Spanish.
**Shared with Aragonese, Catalan, and (to some extent) Spanish.
**E.g. GRANDE(M) > ''grand'' /ɡɾan/ "big" (Aragonese ''gran'' vs Spanish, Aragonese, Galician/Portuguese ''grande'')
*Preservation of voiced fricatives/affricates.
*Preservation of voiced fricatives/affricates.
**Shared with Catalan, Portuguese, and Mirandese.
**Shared with Catalan, Portuguese, and Mirandese.
**E.g. UNDECI(M) > ''onge'' /ˈondʒe/ "eleven" (Catalan, Portuguese, Mirandese ''onze'' vs Aragonese, Asturian, Spanish ''once'')
*Preservation of the distinction between /b/ and /v/.
**Shared with some varieties of Catalan and most varieties of Portuguese.
**E.g. HABĒRE > ''aver'' /aˈveɾ/ "to have" (Portuguese, Catalan ''haver'' vs Spanish, Asturian, Aragonese, Galician ''haber'')
*The following features are unique to Essanian among the Iberian Romance languages:
*The following features are unique to Essanian among the Iberian Romance languages:
**-ST- becomes /θ/.
**-ST- becomes /θ/ - e.g. CŎSTA(M) > ''cueça'' /ˈkweθa/ "slope" (Spanish ''cuesta'').
**-SC- (non-palatalized) and -SP- become /ʃ/.
**-STR- becomes /ð/ - e.g. STRATA(M) > ''zata'' "street" (Portuguese ''estrada'')
**Palatalization of C (before front vowels) and -TI- (before vowels) to /tʃ/.
**-SC- (non-palatalized) and -SP- become /ʃ/ - e.g. SPATULA(M) > ''xalha'' /ˈʃaʎa/ "shoulder" (Catalan ''espatlla''); SCHOLA(M) > ''xuela'' /ˈʃwela/ "school" (Spanish ''escuela'').
*Insertion of /w/ before or after a front vowel to avoid hiatus.
**Palatalization of C (before front vowels) and -TI- (before vowels) to /tʃ/ - e.g. RATIŌNE(M) > ''rachón'' /raˈtʃon/ "reason" (Spanish ''razón'').
*Preservation of W- in loanwords.
**Insertion of /w/ before or after a rounded vowel to avoid hiatus - e.g. TUA(M) > ''tuwa'' /ˈtuwa/ "your" (Portuguese ''tua'').
**Preservation of W- in loanwords - e g. WARDARE > ''wardar'' /waɾˈdaɾ/ "to guard" (Aragonese ''guardar'').


====Morphological====
====Morphological====
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**Shared with Asturian.
**Shared with Asturian.
*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''.
*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''.
**Shared with Catalan (in certain situations).
**Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan.
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/.
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/ (through intermediate stage /ts/).
**Shared with Aragonese.
**Shared with Aragonese.
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
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| ⟨w⟩ after a vowel
| ⟨w⟩ after a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| ''tow'' "your (dialectal)"
| ''ochaw'' "eighth (fraction)"
| Almost always word-final. ⟨-uw⟩ is pronounced [w].
| Almost always word-final. ⟨-uw⟩ is pronounced [w].
|}
|}
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===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
===Phonological history===
===Phonological history===
*Final vowel dropping:
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, t, z''.
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''.
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''.
**Sometimes vowels are dropped irregularly.
<!--
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
Line 961: Line 999:
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine
| colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''nuessu/nuessos, nuessa/nuesses, nuesso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''nos'' || rowspan="2" | –
| colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''nues/nuesos, nuesa/nueses, nueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''nos'' || rowspan="2" | –
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Feminine
Line 976: Line 1,014:
|-
|-
! rowspan="4" | Plural !! rowspan="2" | Informal !! Masculine
! rowspan="4" | Plural !! rowspan="2" | Informal !! Masculine
| colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''vuessu/vuessos, vuessa/vuesses, vueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''vos'' || rowspan="2" | –
| colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''vues/vuesos, vuesa/vueses, vueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''vos'' || rowspan="2" | –
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Feminine
Line 1,037: Line 1,075:


====Number====
====Number====
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also be used in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic.
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also occur in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic.
=====Regular plurals=====
====='''Regular plurals'''=====
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows:
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
Line 1,070: Line 1,108:
|}
|}


=====Irregular plurals=====
====='''Irregular plurals'''=====
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals.
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals.


Line 1,157: Line 1,195:
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| dos || second || meyu
| dos, duwes || second || meyu
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
Line 1,172: Line 1,210:
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| siet || setén || setavu
| siet || setén || setaw
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| weito || oitén || oitavu
| weito || océn || ochaw
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| nueve, nueu || novén || novavu
| nueu || novén || novaw
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| diech || decén || dechavu
| diech || decén || dechaw
|-
|-
! 11
! 11
| onge || ongén || onjavu
| onge || ongén || onjaw
|-
|-
! 12
! 12
| doge || dogén || dojavu
| doge || dogén || dojaw
|-
|-
! 13
! 13
| trege || tregén || trejavu
| trege || tregén || trejaw
|-
|-
! 14
! 14
| quatorge || quatorgén || quatorjavu
| quatorge || quatorgén || quatorjaw
|-
|-
! 15
! 15
| quinge || quingén || quinjavu
| quinge || quingén || quinjas
|-
|-
! 16
! 16
| sege || segén || sejavu
| sege || segén || sejas
|-
|-
! 17
! 17
| deci-siet || deci-setén || deci-setavu
| deci-siet || deci-setén || deci-setaw
|-
|-
! 18
! 18
| deci-weito || deci-oitén || deci-oitavu
| deci-weito || deci-océn || deci-ochaw
|-
|-
! 19
! 19
| deci-nueve, deci-nueu || deci-novén || deci-novavu
| deci-nueu || deci-novén || deci-novaw
|-
|-
! 20
! 20
| vint || vintén || vintavu
| vint || vintén || vintaw
|-
|-
! 21
! 21
| vinti-ún || vinti-unén || vinti-unavu
| vinti-ún || vinti-unén || vinti-unaw
|-
|-
! 30
! 30
| trenta || trentén || trentavu
| trenta || trentén || trentaw
|-
|-
! 40
! 40
| quaranta || quarantén || quarantavu
| quaranta || quarantén || quarantaw
|-
|-
! 50
! 50
| cinquanta || cinquantén || cinquantavu
| cinquanta || cinquantén || cinquantas
|-
|-
! 60
! 60
| sexanta || sexantén || sexantavu
| sexanta || sexantén || sexantaw
|-
|-
! 70
! 70
| setanta || setantén || setantavu
| setanta || setantén || setantaw
|-
|-
! 80
! 80
| oitanta || oitantén || oitantavu
| ochanta || ochantén || ochantaw
|-
|-
! 90
! 90
| novanta || novantén || novantavu
| novanta || novantén || novantaw
|-
|-
! 100
! 100
| cient || centén || centavu
| cient || centén || centaw
|-
! 200
| dos-cientos || dos-centén || dos-centaw
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| mil || milén || milavu
| mil || milén || milaw
|-
! 2000
| dos-mil || dos-milén || dos-milaw
|-
! 10⁶
| milhón || milhonén || milhonaw
|-
! 2×10⁶
| duwes-milhones || duwes-milhonén || duwes-milionaw
|-
! 10⁹
| milhardu || milhardén || milhardaw
|-
! 10¹²
| bilhón || bilhonén || bilhonaw
|}
 
===Verbs===
====Tenses and moods====
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods:
*Indicative mood (''el mod indicativu''):
**Simple tenses (''tiempos simples''):
***Simple present (''el present simple'')
***Preterite (''el passat perfeit'')
***Imperfect (''el passat imperfeit'')
***Simple future (''el futur simple'')
***Simple conditional (''el condichonal simple'')
***Simple pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit simple'')
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''):
***Present perfect (''el passat compueç'')
***Compound pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç'')
***Future perfect (''el futur compueç'')
***Conditional perfect (''el condichonal compueç'')
*Subjunctive mood (''el mod subjuntivu'')
**Simple tenses (''tiempos simples''):
***Present subjunctive (''el present del subjuntivu'')
***Imperfect subjunctive (''el imperfeit del subjuntivu'')
***Future subjunctive (''el futur del subjuntivu'')
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''):
***Perfect subjunctive (''el passat compueç del subjuntivu'')
***Pluperfect subjunctive (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç del subjuntivu'')
***Future perfect subjunctive (''el futur compueç del subjuntivu'')
*Imperative mood (''el mod imperativu'')
**Affirmative imperative (''l'imperativu afirmativu'')
**Negative imperative (''l'imperativu negativu'')
*Non-finite forms (''les formes nominales''):
**Infinitive (''l'infinitivu'')
**Participle (''el participiu')
**Gerund (''el gerundiu'')
For convenience, each tense/mood combination will be referred to in this article as a "tense".
 
====Verb classes====
There are three verb classes:
*First conjugation/''-ar'' verbs (''la conjugachón primera'')
*Second conjugation/''-er'' verbs (''la conjugachón seconda'')
*Third conjugation/''-ir'' verbs (''la conjugachón tercera'')
There are irregular verbs in each class.
 
====Verb conjugation====
Note that second person polite forms always take third person verb conjugations
====='''Non-finite forms'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of regular verbs
! Form !! ''-ar'' verbs !! ''-er'' verbs !! ''-ir'' verbs
|-
! Infinitive
| -ar || -er || -ir
|-
! Participle
| -at/-atos, -ata/-ates, -ato
| colspan="2"|-it/-itos, -ita/-ites, -ito¹
|-
! Gerundive
| -ando || -endo || -indo
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles, which may or may not coexist with regular forms.
<!--
² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.-->
 
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ar'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| -o || -ava || -é || -aré || -areva || -era
|-
! 2S
| -es || -aves || -és || -arás || -areves || -eres
|-
! 3S
| -a || -ava || -ó || -ará || -areva || -era
|-
! 1P
| -án || -aven || -én || -arén || -areven || -eren
|-
! 2P
| -az || -ávez || -ez || -arez || -arévez || -érez
|-
! 3P
| -en || -aven || -ón || -arán || -areven || -eren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-er'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| -o || -eva || -í || -eré || -ereva || -iera
|-
! 2S
| -es || -eves || -iés || -erás || -ereves || -ieres
|-
! 3S
| -(e)¹ || -eva || -ió || -erá || -ereva || -iera
|-
! 1P
| -én || -even || -ién || -erén || -ereven || -ieren
|-
! 2P
| -ez || -évez || -iez || -erez || -erévez || -iérez
|-
! 3P
| -en || -even || -ión || -erán || -ereven || -ieren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ir'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| -o || -iva || -í || -iré || -ireva || -iera
|-
! 2S
| -es || -ives || -iés || -irás || -ireves || -ieres
|-
! 3S
| -(e)¹ || -iva || -ió || -irá || -ireva || -iera
|-
! 1P
| -ín || -iven || -ién || -irén || -ireven || -ieren
|-
! 2P
| -iz || -ívez || -iez || -irez || -irévez || -iérez
|-
! 3P
| -en || -iven || -ión || -irán || -ireven || -ieren
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants.
<!--
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.-->
 
====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple subjunctive tenses (regular ''-ar'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future
|-
! 1S
| -e || -esse || -ere
|-
! 2S
| -as || -essas || -eras
|-
! 3S
| -e || -esse || -ere
|-
! 1P
| -én || -essan || -eran
|-
! 2P
| -ez || -éssaz || -éraz
|-
! 3P
| -an || -essan || -eran
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple subjunctive tenses (regular ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future
|-
! 1S
| -a || -iesse || -iere
|-
! 2S
| -as || -iessas || -ieras
|-
! 3S
| -a || -iesse || -iere
|-
! 1P
| -án || -iessan || -ieran
|-
! 2P
| -az || -iéssaz || -iéraz
|-
! 3P
| -an || -iessan || -ieran
|-
|}
====='''Imperative'''=====
*'''Affirmative:'''
**'''2S:''' Same as 3S present indicative.
**'''2P:''' Same as infinitive, with final ''-r'' replaced with ''-t''.
**'''Other persons:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
*'''Negative:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
====='''Compound tenses'''=====
Compound tenses are formed with the verb ''aver'' "to have" followed by the past participle. They differ from each other according to the tense of the auxiliary verb.
*Non-finite forms:
**Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect gerundive: ''avendo'' + participle
*Indicative:
**Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle
**Compound pluperfect: imperfect of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect: future of ''aver'' + participle
**Conditional perfect: conditional of ''aver'' + participle
*Subjunctive:
**Perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
<!---
====='''Periphrastic tenses'''=====
In addition to the usual simple and compound tenses, there are additional periphrastic tenses formed with auxiliary verbs. These can themselves take any simple or compound tense.-->
 
====='''Passive'''=====
Formed with the appropriate conjugation of ''ser'' with the appropriately declined form of the past participle.
 
It can also be used as a pseudopassive, especially with intransitive verbs. In this case, the participle is always in the neuter.
 
====Irregular verbs====
====='''General notes'''=====
*Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include:
**''-o-'' > ''-ue-''
**''-e-'' > ''-ie-''
**''-ch-'' > ''-it-''
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply.
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' (usually formed by contraction). This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future.
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions):
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Person/Number !! Preterite ending
|-
!1S
| -i
|-
! 2S
| -es
|-
!3S
| -o
|-
!1P
| -én
|-
!2P
| -ez
|-
!3P
| -on
|-
|}
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-n'' from the 1P preterite indicative and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant.
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks
|-
| /k/
| qu || c ||
|-
| /tʃ/
| c || ch || Becomes ''-ch'' when word-final.
|-
| /ɡ ~ ɣ/
| gu || g ||
|-
| /dʒ ~ ʒ/
| g || j || This spelling change does not apply if the infinitive is spelled with ''-j-'', in which case ''-j-'' spelling is maintained in all forms.
|-
| /kw/
| qü || qu ||
|-
| /ɡw ~ ɣw/
| gü || gu ||
|}
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir, -ger, -gir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change.
<!--
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.-->
 
====='''The verb ''ser'' "to be"'''=====
The verb ''ser'' "to be" is highly irregular.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Infinitive
| ser
|-
! Participle
| sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito; <br/>
sut/sutos, suta/sutes, suto¹
|-
! Gerundive
| sendo
|-
|}
¹ Archaic
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| so || yera || fui || seré || sereva || fuera
|-
! 2S
| yes || yeres || fues || serás || sereves || fueres
|-
! 3S
| ye || yera || fue || será || sereva || fuera
|-
! 1P
| son/sen || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren
|-
! 2P
| soz/sez || yérez || fuez || serez || serévez || fuérez
|-
! 3P
| son || yeren || fuen || serán || sereven || fueren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| siya || fuesse || fuere || —
|-
! 2S
| siyas || fuessas || fueras || sé
|-
! 3S
| siya || fuesse || fuere || siya
|-
! 1P
| siyán || fuessan || fueran || siyán
|-
! 2P
| siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz || set
|-
! 3P
| siyan || fuessan || fueran || siyan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''aver'' "to be"'''=====
The verb ''aver'' "to have" is an important irregular verb.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Infinitive
| aver
|-
! Participle
| avit/avitos, avita/avites, avito; <br />
avut/avutos, avuta/avutes, avuto¹
|-
! Gerundive
| avendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite² !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect²
|-
! 1S
| e || eva || ovi || avré || avreva || overa
|-
! 2S
| as || eves || oves || avrás || avreves || overes
|-
! 3S
| a || eva || ovo || avrá || avreva || overa
|-
! 1P
| avén || even || ovén || avrén || avreven || overen
|-
! 2P
| avez || évez || ovez || avrez || avrévez || ovérez
|-
! 3P
| an || even || ovon || avrán || avreven || overen
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.² !! Future subj.² !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| aya || ovesse || overe || —
|-
! 2S
| ayas || ovessas || overas || a
|-
! 3S
| aya || ovesse || overe || aya
|-
! 1P
| ayán || ovessan || overan || ayán
|-
! 2P
| ayaz || ovéssaz || ovéraz || avet
|-
! 3P
| ayan || ovessan || overan || ayan
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
¹ Participles in ''-ut-'' are considered archaic.
 
² The irregular preterite is shown here. A regular preterite (''aví, aviés,'' etc.) can alternatively be used, in which case the pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive likewise become regular.
 
====='''The verb ''andar'' "to go"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Infinitive
| andar
|-
! Participle
| andat/andatos, andata/andates, andato
|-
! Gerundive
| andando
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| vo || andava || andé || iré || ireva || andera
|-
! 2S
| vas || andaves || andés || irás || ireves || anderes
|-
! 3S
| va || andava || andó || irá || ireva || andera
|-
! 1P
| andán || andaven || andén || irén || ireven || anderen
|-
! 2P
| andaz || andávez || andez || irez || irévez || andérez
|-
! 3P
| van || andaven || andón || irán || ireven || anderen
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.³ !! Future subj.³ !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| vaya || andesse || andere || —
|-
! 2S
| vayas || andessas || anderas || anda
|-
! 3S
| vaya || andesse || andere || vaya
|-
! 1P
| vayán || andessan || anderan || vayán
|-
! 2P
| vayaz || andéssaz || andéraz || andat
|-
! 3P
| vayan || andessan || anderan || vayan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''facer'' "to do, make"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Infinitive
| facer
|-
! Participle
| feit/feitos, feita/feites, feito
|-
! Gerundive
| facendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| faco || feva || fici || faré || fareva || ficera
|-
! 2S
| fas || feves || fices || farás || fareves || ficeres
|-
! 3S
| fa || feva || ficho || fará || fareva || ficera
|-
! 1P
| facén || feven || ficén || farén || fareven || ficeren
|-
! 2P
| facez || févez || ficez || farez || farévez || ficérez
|-
! 3P
| fan || feven || fichon || farán || fareven || ficeren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || —
|-
! 2S
| facas || ficessas || ficeras || fa
|-
! 3S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || faca
|-
! 1P
| facán || ficessan || ficeran || facán
|-
! 2P
| facaz || ficéssaz || ficéraz || facet
|-
! 3P
| facan || ficessan || ficeran || facan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''dicer'' "to say"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Infinitive
| dicer
|-
! Participle
| dit/ditos, dita/dites, dito
|-
! Gerundive
| dicendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| dico || diva || dixi || diré || direva || dixera
|-
! 2S
| dices || dives || dixes || dirás || direves || dixeres
|-
! 3S
| dich || diva || dixo || dirá || direva || dixera
|-
! 1P
| dicén || diven || dixén || dirén || direven || dixeren
|-
! 2P
| dicez || dívez || dixez || direz || dirévez || dixérez
|-
! 3P
| dicen || diven || dixon || dirán || direven || dixeren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || —
|-
! 2S
| dicas || dixessas || dixeras || di
|-
! 3S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || dica
|-
! 1P
| dicán || dixessan || dixeran || dicán
|-
! 2P
| dicaz || dixéssaz || dixéraz || dicet
|-
! 3P
| dican || dixessan || dixeran || dican
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 1,252: Line 1,905:
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''Tiempu''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Les çachones''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| spring || el verán
|-
| summer || el çiw
|-
| fall || l'otonh
|-
| winter || l'inviernu
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Hijri Months - ''Los mesos hijrís''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| Muharram || muhárram
|-
| Safar || sáfar
|-
| Rabi' al-Awwal || rabigh primer
|-
| Rabi' ath-Thani || rabigh second
|-
| Jumada al-Ula || jumada primera
|-
| Jumada al-Akhirah || jumada seconda
|-
| Rajab || rájab
|-
| Sha'ban || xaghbán
|-
| Ramadan || ramadán
|-
| Shawwal || xawal
|-
| Dhu'l-Qa'dah || zulcaghda
|-
| Dhu'l-Hijjah || zulhaja
|-
|}-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Greogorian months - ''Los mesos gregorianos''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| January || gener
|-
| February || fevrer
|-
| March || marchu
|-
| April || abril
|-
| May || mayu
|-
| June || junh
|-
| July || julhet
|-
| August || agoç
|-
| September || setiembre
|-
| October || ochombre
|-
| November || noviembre
|-
| December || deciembre
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Los diyes de la semana''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| Sunday || ahad
|-
| Monday || eçnén
|-
| Tuesday || çalaça
|-
| Wednesday || arbagha
|-
| Thursday || hamís
|-
| Friday || jumgha
|-
| Saturday || sabte
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Los partes del diya''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| day || diya
|-
| dawn || alba
|-
| morning || manhana
|-
| noon || meyu-diya
|-
| afternoon || tarde
|-
| evening || serán
|-
| dusk || ocás
|-
| night || nueit
|-
| midnight || meya-nueit
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Unitás del tiempu''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| second || secondu
|-
| minute || minut
|-
| hour || ora; sagha (pl: saghat)
|-
| day || día
|-
| week || semana
|-
| month || mes
|-
| season || çachón
|-
| year || anh
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Adverbos temporales''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| now || agora
|-
| then || alora, entonce
|-
| recently, a short time ago || adiés
|-
| earlier || antes
|-
| soon, shortly || ayina
|-
| later || lueco
|-
| always || siempre
|-
| often || sovent
|-
| sometimes || a veces
|-
| rarely || raro
|-
| never || nunca; jamás; ábadan
|-
| ever || ábadan
|-
| still, yet || awún; ancora
|-
| already || ja
|-
| today || wey
|-
| tonight || ça nueit
|-
| yesterday || ayer
|-
| last night || anueit
|-
| tomorrow || cras
|-
| before yesterday || antes d'ayer
|-
| two nights ago || antes d'anueit
|-
| after tomorrow || depues de cras
|-
| this week || ça semana
|-
| last week || la semana passata
|-
| next week || la semana próxima
|-
|}
===Colours - ''Los colores''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''Los colores''
! English !! Essanian
|-
| white || blancu
|-
| grey || gris
|-
| black || negru
|-
| red || vermelh
|-
| orange || anaranjat
|-
| brown || caçanh
|-
| yellow || amarielh
|-
| green || verde
|-
| blue || azur
|-
| pink || rosat
|-
| purple || rox
|-
| golden || dorat
|-
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
Line 1,265: Line 2,146:


/ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/
/ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/
<!--
====Old Essanian====
Totos los seres humanos nascent ḥorros ed equales en dignitad i drehtos. Sont dotatos de rachón i consciencha, i devent comportar-se los unos con los outros en ruḥu de germantad.-->


==Other resources==
==Other resources==
Shariifka
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